Appendix A1.1 Study characteristics: Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001 (randomized controlled trial)
| Characteristic | Description |
|---|---|
| Study citation | Rashotte, C. A., MacPhee, K., & Torgesen, J. K. (2001). The effectiveness of a group reading instruction program with poor readers in multiple grades. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24 (2), 119–134. |
| Participants | The study included 116 students from grades 1–6 with below-average phonetic decoding and word-level reading skills (as measured by the word attack and word identification subtests of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test–Revised (WRMT–R)). This WWC report focuses on 47 first-grade and second-grade students.1 Students were matched on phonemic decoding and word-level skills at each grade level with one of each pair randomly assigned to Kaplan SpellRead and the other assigned to the comparison condition. Most of the students in the sample were from low-income families and all were Caucasian. |
| Setting | One elementary school in Newfoundland, Canada. |
| Intervention | Kaplan SpellRead was implemented in small groups of three to five students during language arts time outside the regular classroom. The students received 31–35 hours of the program over eight weeks. Each lesson consisted of 30 minutes of phonemic activities, 15 minutes of share reading, and five to six minutes of free reading. The phonemic activities used unscripted lessons with sound cards. New phonemic and phonetic skills were practiced during share reading, followed by free writing where students wrote down what was read. |
| Comparison | The comparison group children participated in the school's regular literacy-based reading program. The regular classroom teachers did not have training in phonetics. After the first posttest assessment, the comparison group was given the Kaplan SpellRead program while the intervention group was given no further Kaplan SpellRead instruction. |
| Primary outcomes and measurement | The primary outcomes in the alphabetics domain were the word identification and word attack subtests of the WRMT–R, the phonemic decoding efficiency subtest of the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE), and elision, blending words, and segmenting words subtests of the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP). The primary outcomes in the fluency domain were the sight words efficiency subtest of the TOWRE and the Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-3) word accuracy subtest. The main outcomes in the comprehension domain were the passage comprehension subtest of the Woodcock Diagnostic Reading Battery (WDRB) and the comprehension subtest of the GORT-3. (See Appendices A2.1–2.3 for more detailed descriptions of outcome measures.) |
| Teacher training | Three teachers and one supervisor implemented the Kaplan SpellRead program. The supervisor had previously taught the program for two years and one of the three teachers was certified. All instructors had been screened to insure that they had strong phonological skills. The four instructors participated in an intensive six-day training program provided by experienced SpellRead staff. |
| 1 The study conducted statistical analyses of three groups of students: grades 1 and 2, grades 3 and 4, and grade 5 and 6. Results for third-grade students were not reviewed because they were not disaggregated from the results of fourth-grade students in this study, and the WWC Beginning Reading topic focuses only on the impact of interventions on students in grades K–3, as defined in the Beginning Reading protocol. | |
Appendix A1.2 Study characteristics: Torgesen et al. 2006 (randomized controlled trial)
| Characteristic | Description |
|---|---|
| Study citation | Torgesen, J., Myers, D., Schirm, A., Stuart, E., Vartivarian, S., Mansfield, W., et al. (2006). National assessment of Title I interim report—Volume II: Closing the reading gap: First year findings from a randomized trial of four reading interventions for striving readers. Retrieved from Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of Education website: http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/disadv/title1interimreport/index.html |
| Participants | The study design was based on random assignment of 37 school units1 to one of four interventions: Corrective Reading, Kaplan SpellRead, Failure Free Reading, or Wilson Reading. Within each school, students were randomly assigned to the comparison condition or to the intervention randomly assigned to their school. This report focuses on eight school units assigned to Kaplan SpellRead. 2 At the time of analysis, the study included 92 third-grade3 students (56 in the intervention and 36 in the comparison groups). The number of students at baseline was not reported.4 Students were eligible to participate in the study if they were identified as struggling readers by their teachers and if they scored at or below the 30th percentile on a word-level reading test and at or above the 5th percentile on a vocabulary test. Thirty-five percent of students in the intervention groups were African-American and 32% in the comparison groups. The other students were Caucasian. Forty-six percent of students in the intervention groups and 36% in the comparison groups were eligible for free/reduced lunch. |
| Setting | Eight school units in Pennsylvania. |
| Intervention | The intervention was implemented from the first week of November 2003 through the first weeks in May 2004. During this time students received, on average, about 90 hours of instruction, which was delivered in 50-minute sessions five days a week to groups of three students. The three-student groups were heterogeneous with regard to students' basic reading skills. The average skills of each group determined the pace of learning. Many of the sessions took place during the student's regular classroom reading instruction, but outside their regular classrooms. Therefore, intervention group students received less reading instruction in the classroom than did students in the comparison group. Implementation fidelity was examined by trainers who observed the teachers and coached them over a period of months and by project coordinators who observed a sample of instructional sessions. In addition, ratings of a sample of videotaped sessions were used. Implementation was rated as acceptable. |
| Comparison | The comparison group students received their typical reading instruction, which included the regular classroom curriculum and, in many cases, other services (such as another pull-out program). The comparison group students had fewer small-group instructional hours than the intervention group students, but more one-on-one instructional hours. |
| Primary outcomes and measurement | The primary outcome measures in the alphabetics domain were the word identification and word attack subtests of the WRMT–R and the phonemic decoding efficiency and the sight words efficiency subtests of the TOWRE. The primary measure in the fluency domain was the Oral Reading Fluency test. The primary measures in the comprehension domain were the WRMT-R passage comprehension subtest and the Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (GRADE) passage comprehension subtest. (See Appendices A2.1–2.3 for more detailed descriptions of outcome measures.) |
| Teacher training | Professional development included training and coaching by reading program staff, independent study of program materials, and telephone conferences. On average, intervention group teachers participated in 63.5 professional development hours across all phases of the study (initial training phase, practice phase, and implementation phase). |
| 1 A school unit consists of several partnered schools so that the cluster included two third-grade and two fifth-grade instructional groups. 2 Findings on Corrective Reading, Failure Free Reading, and Wilson Reading are included in other WWC Beginning Reading reports. 3 The study also included analysis of impact on fifth-grade students. However, this WWC intervention report focuses on impact of beginning reading interventions for students in grades K-3. For further details, please see the Beginning Reading Protocol. 4 The study reported that six students in the intervention group and two students in the comparison group were lost to analysis. However, it is not clear whether those students were in third grade or were part of an additional sample of fifth-grade students that was also examined in this study. |
|
Appendix A2.1 Outcome measures in the alphabetics domain
| Outcome measure | Description |
|---|---|
| Phonological awareness | |
| Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP): Blending Words subtest | A norm-referenced assessment that provides an overall measure of the child's phonological awareness skills. The blending words subtest includes 20 items that measure the extent to which the child can combine sounds to form words (as cited in Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| CTOPP: Elision subtest | A norm-referenced assessment that provides an overall measure of the child's phonological awareness skills. The elision subtest includes 20 items that measure the extent to which the child can say a word and then say what is left after dropping out designated sounds (as cited in Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| CTOPP: Segmenting Words subtest | A norm-referenced assessment that provides an overall measure of the child's phonological awareness skills. The 20-item segmenting words subtest was administered only in grade 2 and has the student repeat words and then say them one sound at a time (as cited in Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| Phonics | |
| Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE): Phonetic Decoding Efficiency subtest | The TOWRE is a standardized, nationally normed measure. The phonetic decoding efficiency subtest measures the number of pronounceable printed nonwords that can be accurately decoded within 45 seconds (as cited in Torgesen et al., 2006, and Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| TOWRE: Sight Word Efficiency subtest | The TOWRE is a standardized, nationally normed measure. The sight word efficiency subtest assesses the number of real printed words that can be accurately identified within 45 seconds (as cited in Torgesen et al., 2006, and Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised (WRMT-R): Word Identification subtest | The word identification subtest is a test of decoding skills. The standardized test requires the child to read aloud isolated real words that range in frequency and difficulty (as cited in Torgesen et al., 2006, and Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| WRMT-R: Word Attack subtest | This standardized test measures phonemic decoding skills by asking students to read pseudowords. Students are aware that the words are not real (as cited in Torgesen et al., 2006, and Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
Appendix A2.2 Outcome measures in the fluency domain
| Outcome measure | Description |
|---|---|
| Edformation Oral Fluency Assessment | This test measures the number of words correct per minute (WCPM) that students read using three brief grade-level passages (AIMSweb, as cited in Torgesen et al., 2006). These passages include both fiction and nonfiction text. The norms for this test are updated by Edformation each school year. |
| The Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-3): Word Accuracy subtest | The word accuracy subtest of the GORT-3 is a standardized reading test that measures the number of word reading errors that occurred while reading a series of short paragraphs that increased in difficulty (as cited in Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| GORT-3: Text Reading Rate subtest | The text reading rate subtest of the GORT-3 is a standardized reading test that measures the amount of time taken to read short paragraphs that increase in difficulty (as cited in Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
Appendix A2.3 Outcome measures in the comprehension domain
| Outcome measure | Description |
|---|---|
| Reading comprehension | |
| Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (GRADE): Passage Comprehension subtest | The GRADE is an untimed, norm-referenced standardized test. The passage comprehension subtest includes a passage of text and corresponding multiple-choice comprehension questions (as cited in Torgesen et al., 2006). |
| GORT-3: Comprehension subtest | In this standardized test, students read paragraphs and answer five comprehension questions for each paragraph. The questions are read to students by the tester (as cited in Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| WRMT–R: Passage Comprehension subtest | In this standardized test, comprehension is measured by having students fill in missing words in a short paragraph (as cited in Torgesen et al., 2006; Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
| Woodcock Diagnostic Reading Battery (WDRB): Passage Comprehension subtest | The passage comprehension subtest of the WDRB asks students to read silently a series of paragraphs and complete the missing words in each paragraph (as cited in Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001). |
Appendix A3.1 Summary of findings included in the rating for alphabetics domain1
| Authors' findings from the study | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean outcome (standard deviation2) | WWC calculations | |||||||
| Outcome measure | Study sample | Sample size (schools/students) | Kaplan SpellRead group | Comparison group | Mean difference3 (Kaplan SpellRead – comparison) | Effect size4 | Statistical significance5 (at α= 0.05) | Improvement index6 |
| Torgesen et al., 2006 (randomized controlled trial)7 | ||||||||
| TOWRE: Phonetic Decoding Efficiency subtest | Grade 3 | 8 school units/92 | 95.84 (15.00) | 88.74 (15.00) | 7.10 | 0.47 | Statistically significant | +18 |
| TOWRE: Sight Word Efficiency subtest | Grade 3 | 8 school units/92 | 92.16 (15.00) | 91.46 (15.00) | 0.70 | 0.05 | ns | +2 |
| WRMT–R: Word Identification subtest | Grade 3 | 8 school units/92 | 89.61 (15.00) | 87.61 (15.00) | 2.00 | 0.13 | ns | +5 |
| WRMT–R: Word Attack subtest | Grade 3 | 8 school units/92 | 100.41 (15.00) | 93.91 (15.00) | 6.50 | 0.43 | Statistically significant | +17 |
| Average8 for alphabetics (Torgesen et al., 2006) | 0.27 | ns | +11 | |||||
| Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001 (randomized controlled trial)7 | ||||||||
| CTOPP: Elision subtest | Grades 1-2 | 1/47 | 98.90 (11.90) | 95.20 (11.70) | 3.70 | 0.31 | ns | +12 |
| CTOPP: Blending Words subtest | Grades 1-2 | 1/47 | 102.80 (11.40) | 95.00 (10.90) | 7.80 | 0.69 | Statistically significant | +25 |
| CTOPP: Segmenting Words subtest | Grade 2 | 1/20 | 98.50 (3.20) | 89.00 (7.40) | 9.50 | 1.60 | Statistically significant | +44 |
| TOWRE: Phonetic Decoding Efficiency subtest | Grades 1-2 | 1/47 | 90.70 (10.60) | 82.10 (10.10) | 8.60 | 0.82 | Statistically significant | +29 |
| TOWRE: Sight Word Efficiency subtest | Grades 1-2 | 1/47 | 88.00 (13.40) | 86.90 (16.90) | 1.10 | 0.07 | ns | +3 |
| WRMT–R: Word Identification subtest | Grades 1-2 | 1/47 | 93.90 (13.90) | 91.70 (15.60) | 2.20 | 0.15 | ns | +6 |
| WRMT–R: Word Attack subtest | Grades 1-2 | 1/47 | 101.40 (12.60) | 88.8 (10.10) | 12.60 | 1.08 | Statistically significant | +36 |
| Average8 for alphabetics (Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001) | 0.67 | Statistically significant | +25 | |||||
| Domain average8 for alphabetics across all studies | 0.47 | na | +18 | |||||
|
ns = not statistically significant 2 The standard deviation across all students in each group shows how dispersed the participants' outcomes are: a smaller standard deviation on a given measure would indicate that participants had more similar outcomes. 3 Positive differences and effect sizes favor the intervention group; negative differences and effect sizes favor the comparison group. In both studies reported here, the intervention group mean equals the comparison group mean plus the mean difference. 4 For an explanation of the effect size calculation, see Technical Details of WWC-Conducted Computations. 5 Statistical significance is the probability that the difference between groups is a result of chance rather than a real difference between the groups. 6 The improvement index represents the difference between the percentile rank of the average student in the intervention condition versus the percentile rank of the average student in the comparison condition. The improvement index can take on values between -50 and +50, with positive numbers denoting results favorable to the intervention group. 7 The level of statistical significance was reported by the study authors or, where necessary, calculated by the WWC to correct for clustering within classrooms or schools and for multiple comparisons. For an explanation about the clustering correction, see the WWC Tutorial on Mismatch. See Technical Details of WWC-Conducted Computations for the formulas the WWC used to calculate statistical significance. In the case of Torgesen et al. (2006), no corrections for clustering were needed in the alphabetics domain because students were assigned to conditions. Corrections for multiple comparisons were needed because the study's reported corrections for multiple comparisons are based on grouping of outcomes, which is different than the grouping of domains for this review. In the case of Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen (2001), a correction for multiple comparisons was needed, so the significance levels may differ from those reported in the original study. 8 The WWC-computed average effect sizes for each study and for the domain across studies are simple averages rounded to two decimal places. The average improvement indices are calculated from the average effect sizes. |
||||||||
Appendix A3.2 Summary of study findings included in the rating for the fluency domain11
| Authors' findings from the study | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean outcome (standard deviation2) | WWC calculations | |||||||
| Outcome measure | Study sample | Sample size (schools/students) | Kaplan SpellRead group | Comparison group | Mean difference3 (Kaplan SpellRead – comparison) | Effect size4 | Statistical significance5 (at α= 0.05) | Improvement index6 |
| Torgesen et al., 2006 (randomized controlled trial)7 | ||||||||
| Oral Reading Fluency | Grade 3 | 8 school units/92 | 65.02 (39.20) | 64.02 (39.20) | 1.00 | 0.03 | ns | +1 |
| Average8 for fluency (Torgesen et al., 2006) | 0.03 | ns | +1 | |||||
| Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001 (randomized controlled trial)7 | ||||||||
| GORT-3: Accuracy subtest | Grade 2 | 1/20 | 94.50 (20.60) | 87.50 (16.70) | 7.00 | 0.36 | ns | +14 |
| GORT-3: Rate subtest | Grade 2 | 1/20 | 92.50 (10.90) | 87.50 (7.20) | 5.00 | 0.52 | ns | +20 |
| Average8 for fluency (Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001) | 0.44 | ns | +17 | |||||
| Domain average8 for fluency across all studies | 0.23 | na | +9 | |||||
|
ns = not statistically significant 2 The standard deviation across all students in each group shows how dispersed the participants' outcomes are: a smaller standard deviation on a given measure would indicate that participants had more similar outcomes. 3 Positive differences and effect sizes favor the intervention group; negative differences and effect sizes favor the comparison group. In both studies reported here, the intervention group mean equals the comparison group mean plus the mean difference. 4 For an explanation of the effect size calculation, see Technical Details of WWC-Conducted Computations. 5 Statistical significance is the probability that the difference between groups is a result of chance rather than a real difference between the groups. 6 The improvement index represents the difference between the percentile rank of the average student in the intervention condition versus the percentile rank of the average student in the comparison condition. The improvement index can take on values between -50 and +50, with positive numbers denoting results favorable to the intervention group. 7 The level of statistical significance was reported by the study authors or, where necessary, calculated by the WWC to correct for clustering within classrooms or schools and for multiple comparisons. For an explanation of the clustering correction, see the WWC Tutorial on Mismatch. See Technical Details of WWC-Conducted Computations for the formulas the WWC used to calculate statistical significance. In the case of Torgesen et al. (2006), no corrections for clustering were needed in the fluency domain. No corrections for multiple comparisons were needed because there is only one outcome in this domain. In the case of Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen (2001), a correction for multiple comparisons was needed, so the significance levels may differ from those reported in the original study. 8 The WWC-computed average effect sizes for each study and for the domain across studies are simple averages rounded to two decimal places. The average improvement indices are calculated from the average effect sizes. |
||||||||
Appendix A3.3 Summary of study findings included in the rating for the comprehension domain1
| Authors' findings from the study | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean outcome (standard deviation)2 | WWC calculations | |||||||
| Outcome measure | Study sample | Sample size (schools/students) | Kaplan SpellRead group | Comparison group | Mean difference3 (Kaplan SpellRead – comparison) | Effect size4 | Statistical significance5 (at α= 0.05) | Improvement index6 |
| Torgesen et al., 2006 (randomized controlled trial)7 | ||||||||
| GRADE: Passage Comprehension | Grade 3 | 8 school units/92 | 84.58 (15.00) | 79.68 (15.00) | 4.90 | 0.32 | ns | +13 |
| WRMT–R: Passage Comprehension | Grade 3 | 8 school units/92 | 92.54 (15.00) | 92.34 (15.00) | 0.20 | 0.01 | ns | +1 |
| Average8 for comprehension (Torgesen et al., 2006) | 0.17 | ns | +7 | |||||
| Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001 (randomized controlled trial)7 | ||||||||
| GORT-3: Comprehension subtest | Grade 2 | 1/20 | 97.50 (13.80) | 82.50 (12.10) | 15.00 | 1.11 | Statistically significant | +37 |
| WDRB: Comprehension subtest | Grades 1-2 | 1/47 | 102.50 (15.70) | 91.40 (16.70) | 11.10 | 0.67 | Statistically significant | +25 |
| Average8 for comprehension (Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen, 2001) | 0.89 | Statistically significant | +31 | |||||
| Domain average8 for comprehension across all studies | 0.53 | na | +20 | |||||
|
ns = not statistically significant 2 The standard deviation across all students in each group shows how dispersed the participants' outcomes are: a smaller standard deviation on a given measure would indicate that participants had more similar outcomes. 3 Positive differences and effect sizes favor the intervention group; negative differences and effect sizes favor the comparison group. In both studies reported here, the intervention group mean equals the comparison group mean plus the mean difference. 4 For an explanation of the effect size calculation, see Technical Details of WWC-Conducted Computations. 5 Statistical significance is the probability that the difference between groups is a result of chance rather than a real difference between the groups. 6 The improvement index represents the difference between the percentile rank of the average student in the intervention condition versus the percentile rank of the average student in the comparison condition. The improvement index can take on values between -50 and +50, with positive numbers denoting results favorable to the intervention group. 7 The level of statistical significance was reported by the study authors or, where necessary, calculated by the WWC to correct for clustering within classrooms or schools and for multiple comparisons. For an explanation about the clustering correction, see the WWC Tutorial on Mismatch. See Technical Details of WWC-Conducted Computations for the formulas the WWC used to calculate statistical significance. In the case of Torgesen et al. (2006), no corrections for clustering were needed in the comprehension domain. No corrections for multiple comparisons were needed because the study's reported corrections for multiple comparisons were based on the same grouping of outcomes as the domain for this review. In the case of Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen (2001), a correction for multiple comparisons was needed, so the significance levels may differ from those reported in the original study. 8 The WWC-computed average effect sizes for each study and for the domain across studies are simple averages rounded to two decimal places. The average improvement indices are calculated from the average effect sizes. |
||||||||
Appendix A4.1 Kaplan SpellRead rating for the alphabetics domain
The WWC rates anintervention's effects in a given outcome domain as positive, potentially positive, mixed, no discernible effects, potentially negative, or negative.1
For the outcome domain of alphabetics, the WWC rated Kaplan SpellRead as having positive effects. The remaining ratings (potentially positive effects, mixed effects, no discernible effects, potentially negative effects, and negative effects) were not considered because Kaplan SpellRead received the highest applicable rating.
| Rating received |
|---|
|
Positive effects: Strong evidence of a positive effect with no overriding contrary evidence.
|
| 1 For rating purposes, the WWC considers the statistical significance of individual outcomes and the domain-level effect. The WWC also considers the size of the domain-level effect for ratings of potentially positive or potentially negative effects. See the WWC Intervention Rating Scheme for a complete description. |
Appendix A4.2 Kaplan SpellRead rating for the fluency domain
The WWC rates anintervention's effects in a given outcome domain as positive, potentially positive, mixed, no discernible effects, potentially negative, or negative.1
For the outcome domain of fluency, the WWC rated Kaplan SpellRead as having potentially positive effects. It did not meet the criteria for positive effects because no studies showed a statistically significant positive effect. The remaining ratings (mixed effects, no discernible effects, potentially negative effects, or negative effects) were not considered because Kaplan SpellRead was assigned the highest applicable rating.
| Rating received |
|---|
|
Potentially positive effects: Evidence of a positive effect with no overriding contrary evidence.
|
| Other ratings considered |
|
Positive effects: Strong evidence of a positive effect with no overriding contrary evidence.
|
| 1 For rating purposes, the WWC considers the statistical significance of individual outcomes and the domain-level effect. The WWC also considers the size of the domain-level effect for ratings of potentially positive or potentially negative effects. See the WWC Intervention Rating Scheme for a complete description. |
Appendix A4.3Kaplan SpellRead rating for the comprehension domain
The WWC rates anintervention's effects in a given outcome domain as positive, potentially positive, mixed, no discernible effects, potentially negative, or negative.1
For the outcome domain of comprehension, the WWC rated Kaplan SpellRead as having potentially positive effects. It did not meet the criteria for positive effects because only one study showed statistically significant positive effects. The remaining ratings (mixed effects, no discernible effects, potentially negative effects, or negative effects) were not considered because Kaplan SpellRead was assigned the highest applicable rating.
| Rating received |
|---|
|
Potentially positive effects: Evidence of a positive effect with no overriding contrary evidence.
|
| Other ratings considered |
|
Positive effects: Strong evidence of a positive effect with no overriding contrary evidence.
|
| 1 For rating purposes, the WWC considers the statistical significance of individual outcomes and the domain-level effect. The WWC also considers the size of the domain-level effect for ratings of potentially positive or potentially negative effects. See the WWC Intervention Rating Scheme for a complete description. |
Appendix A5 Extent of evidence by domain
| Sample size | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome domain | Number of studies | Schools2 | Students | Extent of evidence1 |
| Alphabetics | 2 | >9 | 139 | Small |
| Fluency | 2 | >9 | 139 | Small |
| Comprehension | 2 | >9 | 139 | Small |
| General reading achievement | 0 | 0 | 0 | na |
|
na = not applicable/not studied 1A rating of "medium to large" requires at least two studies and two schools across studies in one domain and a total sample size across studies of at least 350 students or 14 classrooms. Otherwise, the rating is "small."2 One of the two studies reviewed included students from eight schools units. A school unit consists of several partnered schools so that the cluster included two third-grade and two fifth-grade instructional groups. |
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