Estimating the Impact of Integrated Student Support on Elementary School Achievement: A Natural Experiment
Jordan L. Lawson; Laura M. O'Dwyer; Eric Dearing; Anastasia E. Raczek; Claire Foley; Noman Khanani; Mary E. Walsh; Yan R. Leigh (2024). AERA Open, v10 n1 2024. Retrieved from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1455256
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examining625Students, gradesK-5
Single Study Review
Review Details
Reviewed: March 2026
- Single Study Review (findings for City Connects)
- Randomized Controlled Trial
- Meets WWC standards without reservations because it is a randomized controlled trial with low attrition.
This review may not reflect the full body of research evidence for this intervention.
Evidence Tier rating based solely on this study. This intervention may achieve a higher tier when combined with the full body of evidence.
Findings
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Outcome measure |
Comparison | Period | Sample |
Intervention mean |
Comparison mean |
Significant? |
Improvement index |
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS): English Language Arts (ELA) |
City Connects vs. Business as usual |
0 Days |
Full sample;
|
N/A |
N/A |
Yes |
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| Show Supplemental Findings | |||||||||
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Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS): English Language Arts (ELA) |
City Connects vs. Business as usual |
-1 Years |
Full sample;
|
N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- | ||
|
Outcome measure |
Comparison | Period | Sample |
Intervention mean |
Comparison mean |
Significant? |
Improvement index |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Massachusetts Comprehensive Achievement System (MCAS): Math |
City Connects vs. Business as usual |
0 Days |
Full sample;
|
N/A |
N/A |
Yes |
|
||
| Show Supplemental Findings | |||||||||
|
Massachusetts Comprehensive Achievement System (MCAS): Math |
City Connects vs. Business as usual |
-1 Years |
Full sample;
|
N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- | ||
Evidence Tier rating based solely on this study. This intervention may achieve a higher tier when combined with the full body of evidence.
Sample Characteristics
Characteristics of study sample as reported by study author.
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Female: 48%
Male: 52% -
Urban
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Massachusetts
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Race Asian 11% Black 28% Other or unknown 50% White 11% -
Ethnicity Hispanic 47% Not Hispanic or Latino 53% -
Eligible for Free and Reduced Price Lunch Free or reduced price lunch (FRPL) 84% No FRPL 17%
Study Details
Setting
The study took place in 5 to 17 elementary schools in Boston Public Schools in Massachusetts.
Study sample
The study included 1,864 students (1,035 students in the intervention group, 829 students in the comparison group) in the fourth grade cohort and 1,420 students (793 in the intervention group, 627 in the comparison group) in the fifth grade cohort. The study analyzed outcomes for only 623 of these students. The study did not include students in separate special education placements. Of the kindergarten students in the lottery, 18.8% received special education services.
Intervention Group
City Connects is a schoolwide integrated student support program designed to connect every child to tailored prevention, intervention, and enrichment services. Each City Connects school employs a full-time coordinator who is a master’s-level licensed school counselor or social worker. The coordinator meets with teachers each fall to review every student to develop an individualized support plan considering their academic, social-emotional and behavioral development, health, and family needs. Coordinators use an online database to link students to in-school and community services and build partnerships over time. City Connects was delivered from grades kindergarten through 5, and students could have received a maximum of four to six years of the intervention. Some children did not attend a City Connects school despite winning a lottery spot. By the time students reached third grade, 89% of students initially offered enrollment to a City Connects school were enrolled in one. During the study years, nearly all students (99-100%) in schools implementing City Connects received a personalized support plan and most students (75-99%) received at least one support or enrichment service. Multiple community partners were engaged in providing services, with the total number of partners per year ranging from 96 to 322.
Comparison Group
Students in comparison schools received business-as-usual supports available in their schools. These schools did not use a structured support model with a dedicated coordinator. They also received supports from fewer community partnerships.
Support for implementation
Implementation was supported by a standardized set of protocols, manuals, an online resource database, online tools, and oversight mechanisms managed by City Connects. The manuscript did not report the amount of training or professional development delivered during the study.
An indicator of the effect of the intervention, the improvement index can be interpreted as the expected change in percentile rank for an average comparison group student if that student had received the intervention.
For more, please see the WWC Glossary entry for improvement index.
An outcome is the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are attained as a result of an activity. An outcome measures is an instrument, device, or method that provides data on the outcome.
A finding that is included in the effectiveness rating. Excluded findings may include subgroups and subscales.
The sample on which the analysis was conducted.
The group to which the intervention group is compared, which may include a different intervention, business as usual, or no services.
The timing of the post-intervention outcome measure.
The number of students included in the analysis.
The mean score of students in the intervention group.
The mean score of students in the comparison group.
The WWC considers a finding to be statistically significant if the likelihood that the finding is due to chance alone, rather than a real difference, is less than five percent.
The WWC reviews studies for WWC products, Department of Education grant competitions, and IES performance measures.
The name and version of the document used to guide the review of the study.
The version of the WWC design standards used to guide the review of the study.
The result of the WWC assessment of the study. The rating is based on the strength of evidence of the effectiveness of the intervention. Studies are given a rating of Meets WWC Design Standards without Reservations, Meets WWC Design Standards with Reservations, or >Does Not Meet WWC Design Standards.
A related publication that was reviewed alongside the main study of interest.
Study findings for this report.
Based on the direction, magnitude, statistical significance, and sample size of the findings within a domain, the WWC assigns effectiveness ratings as one of the following: Tier 1 (strong evidence), Tier 2 (moderate evidence), Tier 3 (promising evidence), uncertain effects, and negative effects. For more detail, please see the WWC Handbook.
The WWC may review studies for multiple purposes, including different reports and re-reviews using updated standards. Each WWC review of this study is listed in the dropdown. Details on any review may be accessed by making a selection from the drop down list.
Tier 1 Strong indicates strong evidence of effectiveness,
Tier 2 Moderate indicates moderate evidence of effectiveness, and
Tier 3 Promising indicates promising evidence of effectiveness,
as defined in the
non-regulatory guidance for ESSA
and the regulations for ED discretionary grants (EDGAR Part 77).