Research References

Fusarelli, B. C., Fusarelli, L. D., & Drake, T. A. (2019). NC State's principal leadership academies: Context, challenges, and promising practices. Journal of Research on Leadership Education, 14(1), 11–30. Abstract retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1206169; full text available at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ pdf/10.1177/1942775118819678

From the abstract:

Developing effective educational leaders is fundamentally and irrevocably an interpersonal, relational process—one that requires face-to-face contact, deep thought, deliberation, reflection, engagement, and interaction. It requires cultivation of the habits of heart, mind, and soul. For nearly a decade, the faculty at North Carolina State University (NCSU) have focused on dramatically improving principal preparation. This article explores the initial design of the program, its key features and how they have evolved, processes established for continuous improvement, major challenges faced and approaches to addressing these challenges, and recent program initiatives.

Horst, M. D., & Martin, B. N. (2007). A case study: Leadership and its effect on achievement of children from poverty in a rural setting. The Rural Educator, 28(3), 33–40. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ783892

From the abstract:

The purpose of this study was to examine the perceived effectiveness of leadership in a Missouri rural K–8 school with a high incidence of poverty that consistently met federal and state accountability mandates. The concepts of accountability as measured by student achievement, the unique educational needs of children from poverty, and the challenges of the rural school location were viewed through the lens of leadership. Ten practices of leadership that lead to consistent student achievement were suggested. They include integrity and courage, focus and vision, expectations and data evaluation, resources and empowerment, role modeling, and collaboration. Implications of this study could impact mentoring programs to support beginning and practicing administrators, leadership training in schools of education and state leadership programs, programs and instruction designed for children from poverty, and considerations of the monetary and educational cost of consolidation.

Masumoto, M., & Brown-Welty, S. (2009). Case study of leadership practices and school-community interrelationships in high-performing, high-poverty, rural California high schools. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 24(1), 1–18. Abstract retrieved from Abstract retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ829131

From the abstract:

Many rural California high schools are impacted by the disadvantages of poverty, non-English speaking students, limited resources, changing demographics, and challenges of the rural context. Focusing on contemporary leadership theories and school-community interrelationships, this qualitative study examines the practices of educational leaders in three high-performing, high-poverty, rural California high schools. The authors employed case study methodology using a variety of data sources including document analysis, interviews, and observations. Cross-case findings revealed that the local educational leadership had effectively employed multiple instructional, distributed, and transformational practices to improve student outcomes, and had established multiple formal and informal linkages with institutional entities outside of the school to accomplish their missions. Contributors to school-wide success in each case included: focus on instruction, standards, and expectations; strengths of teachers, and; development of multiple support systems for students with varying needs. Educational leaders in the schools studied with the highest poverty rates and highest percentages of English Language Learners made significant improvements in student achievement through active involvement of parents and the mobilization of other external and community resources.

Suber, C. (2012). Characteristics of effective principals in high-poverty South Carolina elementary schools. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 7(1). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ971503

From the abstract:

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) changed the landscape of education nationally. The purpose of this law is to provide a high-quality education to children regardless of their race, socioeconomic status, ability, or background. Effective School Research suggests that successful student learning is linked to the following school characteristics: alignment of instruction and assessment, focused professional development, effective monitoring of instruction, reduction of teacher attrition, and a positive school culture. Successful school principals are closely involved with the teachers' instruction and student learning in their schools. There are few high-poverty, high-performing schools within South Carolina based on school report card data. This study will identify the characteristics of principals, whose schools were identified as high poverty, high-performing according to the South Carolina Department of Education. The principals were identified by school awards received from the State for their perceived effectiveness.

Tran, H., & Smith, D. A. (2020). The strategic support to thrive beyond survival model: An administrative support framework for improving student outcomes and addressing educator staffing in rural and urban high-needs schools. Research in Educational Administration & Leadership, 5(3), 870–919. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1279157

From the abstract:

This paper presents an empirically grounded conceptual model that positions the principal as the talent developer, who when provided mentorship on how to strategically scaffold their teachers, will improve their own self-efficacy and competencies to provide better administrative support. Not only will this mentorship decrease their feelings of job-related overburden and improve their retention, but they will also jointly increase teacher support (thereby reducing their turnover) and increase performance by improving student learning. The model advances scholarship by addressing administrative and leadership mentoring and role modeling in cross-cultural contexts through a multi-level framework (i.e., mentorship to school leaders on how to mentor and support teachers), with the goal of improving social justice through the advancement of social inclusion. The paper will interrogate how mentoring and development is conceived by distinguishing the different types of administrative support that leaders in rural and urban high-needs (high poverty and low-performing) schools must provide for their teachers in their respective settings. The relevance of these distinctions and the emphasis of the paper for an international context will be discussed.

Woods, E. H. J., & Martin, B. N. (2016). What leadership behaviors were demonstrated by the principal in a high poverty, high achieving elementary school? Cogent Education, 3(1). Abstract retrieved from https://eric.ed. gov/?id=EJ1138419; full text available at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1172935

From the abstract:

Examined through the lens of leadership, were the behaviors of a principal as perceived by stakeholders. The following themes emerged: (1) Educating the Whole Child, with the subthemes: (a) providing basic needs; (b) academic interventions based on achievement data; (c) an emphasis on reading; (d) extended academic time; and (e) relationships; and (2) Synergy of Expectations, with the subthemes: (a) consistent student expectations; (b) increased staff accountability; and (c) community involvement. The researchers found that the principal by demonstrating behaviors as a change agent, a creator of vision, and a provider of necessary support and strategies, rather than adopting numerous programs, the school personnel were able to increase and sustain academic achievement of the students of poverty as well as their peers. Implications for principal practices, along with leadership preparatory programs are significant.

Additional Ask A REL Responses to Consult

Ask A REL Appalachia at SRI International. (2018). What are characteristics or components of effective programs or strategies that promote the development of school leaders? https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/ edlabs/regions/appalachia/askarel/aar41.asp

Ask A REL Mid-Atlantic at Mathematica. (2018). What does the research say about principal leadership in K–12 education settings? What are the key areas or competencies of effective school leaders in general and in turnaround (or low-performing) schools? https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/midatlantic/askarel_55.asp

Additional Organizations to Consult

Center for Innovative Rural Collaborative Leadership Education (CIRCLE): https://circleruralcenter.com/

From the website:

CIRCLE is a practice-research partnership that amplifies rural voices, disrupts deficit rural stereotypes through innovative rural leadership training, and disseminates partnership results through practitioner and scholarly journals and joint presentations at annual meetings. It is a national clearinghouse for practice-research partnerships (PRPs), focused specifically on improving the preparation and practice of educational leaders in rural contexts, thereby improving equitable learning outcomes for rural students across the country.

Center on Great Teachers and Leaders at American Institutes for Research: http://www.gtlcenter.org/

From the website:

The GTL Center team has a deep bench of national experts ready to deliver a comprehensive set of services to meet your unique needs. Our team includes former teachers, principals, and teacher leaders, including National Board Certified Teachers. As former practitioners who have worked in classrooms, schools, districts, and state agencies, we know first-hand what it looks like when a school system works, and when it does not. We're passionate about using effective strategies to help states and their districts build diverse, talented teams of educators as the foundation for student success.

• Coach and Support School Leaders: https://gtlcenter.org/content/coach-and-support-school-leaders

The Wallace Foundation: https://www.wallacefoundation.org

From the website:

Based in New York City, The Wallace Foundation is a philanthropy working nationally to answer important questions that, if solved, could help strengthen practices and policies within a field. Our mission is to foster improvements in learning and enrichment for disadvantaged children and the vitality of the arts for everyone...Wallace currently has initiatives in six areas: afterschool, arts education, building audiences for the arts, expanded learning, school leadership and summer learning.

• Knowledge Center, School Leadership: https://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/school-leadership/

U.S. Department of Education Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, State Support Network: https://oese.ed.gov/resources/oese-technical-assistance-centers/state-support-network/

From the website:

The State Support Network was a technical assistance initiative operating from 2016 to 2020 designed to support state and district school improvement efforts. Use this site to learn more about State Support Network communities of practice and to access free resources for states and district to support school improvement...The State Support Network's over 25 Communities of Practice [brought] together States, districts, and TA partners around such topics as...Principal Talent Management and Supporting Rural School Leaders.

• Cultivating and Supporting Effective Rural School Leaders Community of Practice Summary: https://oese.ed.gov/resources/oese-technical-assistance-centers/state-support-network/resources/cultivating-supporting-effective-rural-school-leaders-community-practice-cop-summary/

Methods

Keywords and Search Strings

The following keywords and search strings were used to search the reference databases and other sources:

• “effective leadership” AND rural AND (poverty OR low-income OR poor)
• (leader* OR principal OR “educational leadership”) AND (rural OR “rural school*”) AND (poverty OR “high poverty” OR low-income)
• “effective leadership” AND (skills OR competencies) AND rural AND (poverty OR low- income OR poor)

Databases and Resources

We searched ERIC, a free online library of more than 1.6 million citations of education research sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), for relevant resources. Additionally, we searched the academic database ProQuest, Google Scholar, and the commercial search engine Google.

Reference Search and Selection Criteria

In reviewing resources, Reference Desk researchers consider—among other things—these four factors:

• Date of the publication: Searches cover information available within the last ten years, except in the case of nationally known seminal resources.
• Reference sources: IES, nationally funded, and certain other vetted sources known for strict attention to research protocols receive highest priority. Applicable resources must be publicly available online and in English.
• Methodology: The following methodological priorities/considerations guide the review and selection of the references: (a) study types—randomized controlled trials, quasi experiments, surveys, descriptive data analyses, literature reviews, policy briefs, etc., generally in this order; (b) target population, samples (representativeness of the target population, sample size, volunteered or randomly selected), study duration, etc.; (c) limitations, generalizability of the findings and conclusions, etc.
• Existing knowledge base: Vetted resources (e.g., peer-reviewed research journals) are the primary focus, but the research base is occasionally slim or nonexistent. In those cases, the best resources available may include, for example, reports, white papers, guides, reviews in non-peer-reviewed journals, newspaper articles, interviews with content specialists, and organization websites.

Resources included in this document were last accessed on December 7, 2021. URLs, descriptions, and content included here were current at that time.

This memorandum is one in a series of quick-turnaround responses to specific questions posed by educational stakeholders in the Appalachian Region (Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia), which is served by the Regional Educational Laboratory Appalachia (REL AP) at SRI International. This Ask A REL response was developed by REL AP under Contract ED-IES-17-C-0004 from the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, administered by SRI International. The content does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of IES or the U.S. Department of Education, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government.