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REL Central Ask A REL Response

College and Career Readiness

January 2021

Question

What practices support increasing college or vocational school enrollment and graduation?

Response

Following an established research protocol, REL Central conducted a search for research reports as well as descriptive study articles to help answer the question. The resources included ERIC and other federally funded databases and organizations, research institutions, academic databases, and general Internet search engines. (For details, please see the methods section at the end of this memo.)

References are listed in alphabetical order, not necessarily in order of relevance. We have not evaluated the quality of the references provided in this response, and we offer them only for your information. We compiled the references from the most commonly used resources of research, but they are not comprehensive and other relevant sources may exist.

Research References

Backstrand, J. R., & Donaldson, K. (2018). Post-secondary outcomes of Newark High School graduates (2011-2016): College enrollment, persistence, & completion. Newark City of Learning Collaborative; School of Public Affairs and Administration at Rutgers University-Newark. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED590999

From the executive summary:

“This report is a longitudinal study of the college-going patterns of almost 13,500 Newark high school students from the district, charter, vocational technical, and parochial sectors. It includes students who graduated high school between 2011 and 2016 from the Newark Public Schools (NPS)–both comprehensive and magnet, Essex County Vocational Technical Schools (ECVTS), KIPP New Jersey, and St. Benedict’s Preparatory School (SBP). Taken together, these schools and districts represent about 85 percent of Newark high school students during this period.

Building on a 2014 analysis of post-secondary outcomes for 2004–2011 NPS graduates, this report describes the college enrollment, persistence, and completion patterns of Newark high school graduates from multiple sectors. Current findings will aid Newark in identifying areas of improvement, strength, and success in the city’s post-secondary pipeline. By gaining a better understanding of post-secondary outcomes–including the gaps along the path to college enrollment, persistence, and completion–Newark’s students, parents, teachers, counselors, principals, community members, policy makers, and businesses can collectively evaluate the current systems and policies to better improve college outcomes for Newark’s students moving forward.”


Burns, R., & Bentz, A. H. (2020). First-time subbaccalaureate students: An overview of their institutions, programs, completion, and labor market outcomes after 3 years (NCES 2020–035). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED606324

From the ERIC abstract:

“Participation in the modern U.S. economy requires that most workers have education and training beyond high school, with over 60 percent of all jobs and 80 percent of middle-class jobs requiring some level of postsecondary education. This report draws upon data from the 2012/14 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:12/14) to describe the enrollment patterns, 3-year completion rates, and early labor market experiences of students who began in certificate or associate’s degree programs in 2011–12. To provide context for understanding the completion rates and labor market experiences of certificate and associate’s degree students, this report begins by examining the institutions they first attended, the programs in which they initially enrolled, and their enrollment intensity during their time in college (i.e., full-time, part-time, or a mix of full- and part-time enrollment).”


Chen, X. (2016). Remedial coursetaking at U.S. public 2-and 4-year institutions: Scope, experiences, and outcomes (NCES 2016–405). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED568682

From the ERIC abstract:

“Every year, millions of new college students arrive on campus lacking the necessary academic skills to perform at the college level. Postsecondary institutions address this problem with extensive remedial programs designed to strengthen students’ basic skills. While much research on the effectiveness of remedial education has been conducted, rigorous studies are limited and the results have been mixed. This Statistical Analysis Report attempts to contribute to the literature with a descriptive analysis of beginning postsecondary students’ coursetaking spanning the 6-year period between 2003 and 2009, documenting the scope, intensity, timing, and completion of remedial coursetaking and its association with various postsecondary outcomes among students who began at public 2- and 4-year institutions. Remedial education programs may include support services in addition to precollege-level coursework, both of which are designed to get underprepared students ready for college-level work. However, this report focuses only on remedial coursework (not support services), using the terms ‘remedial coursetaking,’ ‘college remediation,’ or ‘simply remediation’ interchangeably to describe students’ participation in college preparatory coursework at the postsecondary level. The study addresses the following questions: (1) What percentage of 2003–04 beginning postsecondary students at public 2- and 4-year institutions took remedial courses from 2003 to 2009? What types of remedial courses did they take? What was the average number of remedial courses taken?; (2) Who took remedial courses? When did students take these courses? What were their completion rates?; and (3) Did remedial course completers and noncompleters experience different postsecondary outcomes than students who had similar demographic backgrounds, academic preparation, and enrollment characteristics but did not take any remedial courses? The data for this report were drawn from the 2004/09 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:04/09) and its associated 2009 Postsecondary Education Transcript Study (PETS:09). It was found that not all students who enrolled in remedial courses passed them. The relationship between students’ participation in and completion of remedial coursework and their subsequent college outcomes varied by their level of academic preparedness.”


Dual Enrollment Programs. What Works Clearinghouse Intervention Report. What Works Clearinghouse, February 2017. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED572842

From the ERIC abstract:

“‘Dual enrollment’ programs allow high school students to take college courses and earn college credits while still attending high school. Such programs, also referred to as ‘dual credit’ or early college programs, are designed to boost college access and degree attainment, especially for students typically underrepresented in higher education. ‘Dual enrollment programs’ support college credit accumulation and degree attainment via at least three mechanisms. First, allowing high school students to experience college-level courses helps them prepare for the social and academic requirements of college while having the additional supports available to high school students; this may reduce the need for developmental coursework. Second, students who accumulate college credits early and consistently are more likely to attain a college degree. Third, many ‘dual enrollment’ programs offer discounted or free tuition, which reduces the overall cost of college and may increase the number of low socioeconomic status students who can attend and complete college. This What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) intervention report presents findings from a systematic review of ‘dual enrollment’ programs conducted using the WWC Procedures and Standards Handbook, version 3.0, and the Transition to College review protocol, version 3.2. The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) identified five studies of ‘dual enrollment’ programs that both fall within the scope of the Transition to College topic area and meet WWC group design standards. Two studies meet WWC group design standards without reservations, and three studies meet WWC group design standards with reservations. Together, these studies included 77,249 high school students across the United States. ‘Dual enrollment’ programs were found to have positive effects on students’ degree attainment (college), college access and enrollment, credit accumulation, completing high school, and general academic achievement (high school), with a medium to large extent of evidence. For the staying in high school, college readiness, and attendance (high school) domains, ‘dual enrollment’ programs had potentially positive effects with a small extent of evidence. ‘Dual enrollment programs’ were found to have no discernible effects on general academic achievement (college) with a small extent of evidence.”


Faria, A.-M., Sorensen, N., Heppen, J., Bowdon, J., Taylor, S., Eisner, R., & Foster, S. (2017). Getting students on track for graduation: Impacts of the Early Warning Intervention and Monitoring System after one year (REL 2017–272). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Midwest. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED573814

From the ERIC abstract:

“Although high school graduation rates are rising–the national rate was 82 percent during the 2013/14 school year (U.S. Department of Education, 2015) –dropping out remains a persistent problem in the Midwest and nationally. Many schools now use early warning systems to identify students who are at risk of not graduating, with the goal of intervening early to help students get back on track for on-time graduation. Although research has guided decisions about the types of data and indicators used to flag students as being at risk, little is known about the impact of early warning systems on students and schools–and in particular, whether these systems do help get students back on track. This study, designed in collaboration with the REL Midwest Dropout Prevention Research Alliance, examined the impact and implementation of one early warning system–the Early Warning Intervention and Monitoring System (EWIMS)–on student and school outcomes. To assess the impact of EWIMS on student and school outcomes, 73 high schools in three Midwest Region states were randomly assigned to implement EWIMS during the 2014/15 school year (37 EWIMS schools) or to continue their usual practices for identifying and supporting students at risk of not graduating on time and to delay implementation of EWIMS until the following school year (36 control schools). The study included 37,671 students in their first or second year of high school, with 18,634 students in EWIMS schools and 19,037 students in control schools. EWIMS and control schools and students were similar on all background characteristics prior to random assignment. The study examined the impacts of EWIMS on indicators of student risk and on student progress in school after the first year of EWIMS adoption. The study found that EWIMS reduced the percentage of students with risk indicators related to chronic absence and course failure but not related to low GPAs or suspension: (1) The percentage of students who were chronically absent (missed 10 percent or more of instructional time) was lower in EWIMS schools (10 percent) than in control schools (14 percent); this 4 percentage point difference was statistically significant; and (2) The percentage of students who failed one or more courses was lower in EWIMS schools (21 percent) than in control schools (26 percent); this 5 percentage point difference was statistically significant; (3) The percentage of students who had a low GPA (2.0 or lower) was 17 percent in EWIMS schools and 19 percent in control schools; this difference was not statistically significant. However, sensitivity analyses that used continuous GPA data instead of the binary risk indicator showed that, on average, GPAs were higher in EWIMS schools (2.98) than in control schools (2.87); this difference was statistically significant; and (4) The percentage of students who were suspended once or more was 9 percent in both EWIMS and control schools; there was no statistically significant difference. EWIMS did not have an impact on student progress in school. That is, there was not a statistically significant difference between EWIMS and control schools in the percentage of students who earned insufficient credits to be on track to graduate within four years (14 percent in both). At the school level, EWIMS did not have a detectable impact on school data culture, that is, the ways in which schools use data to make decisions and identify students in need of additional support. In nearly all participating schools, overall implementation of the EWIMS seven-step process was low, and implementation was challenging. Nevertheless, EWIMS schools were more likely than control schools to report using an early warning system and having a dedicated team to identify and support at-risk students, but EWIMS schools did not differ from control schools in the frequency of data review or the number and type of interventions offered. This report provides rigorous initial evidence that even with limited implementation during the first year of adoption, using a comprehensive early warning system can reduce the percentage of students who are chronically absent or who fail one or more courses. These short-term results are promising because chronic absence and course failure in grades 9 and 10 are two key indicators that students are off track for on-time graduation. However, because the past research linking indicators to on-time graduation is correlational, it is not yet known if improving these indicators leads to improving on-time graduation rates. Also, EWIMS did not have a detectable impact on other measured indicators that are related to students’ likelihood of on-time graduation, including low GPAs, suspensions, and earning insufficient credits. Future research is needed to better understand the mechanisms through which EWIMS had an impact on chronic absence and course failure and why EWIMS did not affect other outcomes. In particular, studies could focus on identifying which staff actions and student experiences lead to improved student outcomes. Studies should also examine whether schools achieve improved overall implementation in subsequent years and whether (and how) the observed impacts fade, grow larger, or extend to other risk indicators (low GPAs and suspensions); to intermediate outcomes (including student persistence and progress in school); and to long-term outcomes (including dropout and on-time graduation rates).”


Feygin, A. R., Guarino, N. I., & Pardo, M. (2019). The postsecondary education and employment pathways of Minnesota public high school graduates: Investigating opportunity gaps (REL 2019–011). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Midwest. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED598218

From the ERIC abstract:

“In Minnesota, as in many other states, not all students have access to the types of educational experiences in high school that are likely to lead to high-paying jobs. If Minnesota policymakers and practitioners are to be well positioned to reduce achievement gaps that lead to different career and college outcomes, they must have reliable data on the postsecondary pathways Minnesota public high school graduates take, as well as information about differences in pathways and outcomes for different groups of students. Members of the Midwest Career Readiness Research Alliance collaborated with Regional Educational Laboratory Midwest to conduct a study that describes the postsecondary pathways of Minnesota public high school graduates, including the pathways graduates take within one year of high school graduation and their degree attainment and employment outcomes six years later. The study also examined differences in initial pathways, degree attainment, and employment outcomes for students with different characteristics. Using data from the Minnesota Statewide Longitudinal Education Data System, the study examined the initial postsecondary pathways of Minnesota public high school students who graduated from high school between 2008 and 2015. The study also examined the college certificate and degree attainment and employment outcomes of Minnesota public high school students who graduated from high school between 2008 and 2010. The study describes differences in initial postsecondary pathways, college certificate and degree attainment, and employment for students from different groups. The study found that within one year of high school graduation, nearly all Minnesota public high school graduates were enrolled in college or employed. There were differences in initial postsecondary pathway by student characteristics but not by rurality. Graduates who had disabilities, graduates who had limited English proficiency, Hispanic graduates, and American Indian/Alaska Native graduates were the most likely to be neither employed nor enrolled in college within one year of high school graduation. Six years after high school graduation, 48 percent of graduates had not earned a college certificate or degree. Thirty-seven percent of graduates had earned a bachelor’s degree or higher, 11 percent of graduates had earned an associate’s degree, and 4 percent of graduates had earned a college certificate. In addition, six years after high school graduation, 71 percent of graduates were employed, and their median annual earnings were $22,717. Finally, there were differences in college certificate and degree attainment, employment, and earnings by student characteristics. These differences remained when comparing graduates who participated in the same initial postsecondary pathway. The results of this study suggest that high schools might consider expanding access to college readiness opportunities for students from diverse backgrounds; targeting resources to students who are the most at risk during the transition to postsecondary education and employment; and sharing information with students about the earnings of past cohorts of students and how they differed across postsecondary pathways. The results of this study also suggest that colleges might consider opportunities to better support these students after they enroll in college.”


Forrest Cataldi, E., Bennett, C. T., & Chen, X. (2018). First-generation students: College access, persistence, and postbachelor’s outcomes (NCES 2018–421). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED580935

From the ERIC abstract:

“This Statistics in Brief focuses on students whose parents have not attended college and examines these students’ high school success and postsecondary enrollment, persistence and degree completion once they enrolled in college, and graduate school enrollment and employment outcomes after they attained a bachelor’s degree. Their outcomes are compared to those of their peers whose parents had attended or completed college. This report draws on data from three nationally representative studies from the National Center for Education Statistics: the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), the 2004/09 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:04/09), and the 2008/12 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:08/12).”


Hodara, M., & Lewis, K. (2017). How well does high school grade point average predict college performance by student urbanicity and timing of college entry? (REL 2017–250). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northwest. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED573041

From the abstract:

“This report is a companion to a study that found that high school grade point average was a stronger predictor of performance in college-level English and math than were standardized exam scores among first-time students at the University of Alaska who enrolled directly in college-level courses. This report examines how well high school grade point average and standardized exam scores predict college grades by the urbanicity of students’ hometown and timing of college entry. Among recent high school graduates from both urban and rural areas of Alaska, high school grade point average was a better predictor of college course grades than were SAT, ACT, or ACCUPLACER scores. It was a more powerful predictor of college performance among students who entered college within a year of high school graduation than among students who delayed college entry. For students who delayed college entry, high school grade point average was a better predictor than were standardized exam scores in English, but that was not always the case in math.”


Mellor, L., & Lin, S. (2020). Examining high school career and technical education programs and the postsecondary outcomes of career and technical education students in the Round Rock Independent School District (REL 2021–050). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED608126

From the ERIC abstract:

“This study investigated the percentage of Round Rock Independent School District (ISD) graduates from 2012/13 through 2017/18 who completed one or more career and technical education (CTE) programs of study and attained outcomes after high school graduation including college enrollment, degree or certificate attainment, and employment. The study also examined the alignment of CTE programs of study in Round Rock ISD and 41 other Central Texas districts with high-wage, in-demand career pathways in Central Texas, and the percentages of graduates who completed programs of study aligned with those high-wage, in-demand career pathways. The study used longitudinal student-level administrative high school, postsecondary education, and employment data, as well as Texas labor market information. The percentage of Round Rock ISD students who graduated with one or more CTE programs of study increased substantially across the six graduating cohorts to 47 percent for the 2017/18 cohort. More than 80 percent of Round Rock ISD CTE graduates from each cohort enrolled in two- or four-year colleges or were employed within one year of high school graduation. Seventy-six percent of 2015/16 through 2017/18 Round Rock ISD CTE graduates completed course requirements in the 13 programs of study aligned with regional high-wage, in-demand career pathways in the Central Texas labor market. Round Rock ISD leaders could use findings to encourage participation in CTE by all student groups. They also could use the results regarding CTE programs of study completed by graduates and the alignment of those programs to high-wage, in-demand career pathways in Central Texas to refine the CTE programs of study offered. To encourage postsecondary enrollment and completion, Round Rock ISD leaders could demonstrate for students and families which colleges and universities in the region have credentials in high-wage, in-demand programs of study. Finally, findings from the study provide information to inform Round Rock ISD leaders as they consider opening a CTE high school. Expanding CTE through an additional high school may expand opportunities for students to enroll in postsecondary education and engage in occupations related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.”


Stewart, S., Lim, D. H., & Kim, J. (2015). Factors influencing college persistence for first-time students. Journal of Developmental Education, 38(3), 12–16, 18–20. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1092649

From the abstract:

“Using Tinto’s (1993) longitudinal model of institutional departure, this study examined demographic variables, family characteristics, precollege and college academic performance factors, and extent to which mandatory placement in remedial courses predict persistence at a public research institution. This study also examined the relationship between ACT composite scores, high school GPA, first-semester college grade point averages, and persistence. Longitudinal data with 3,213 students were analyzed using factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA), Pearson’s product-moment correlations, and multiple regression analysis. Results showed significant mean differences for ethnicity, financial aid, and remedial status on persistence. High school GPA and first-semester college GPA were found to be significant predictors of persistence. Findings indicated that traditional college students who were academically prepared to take college-level coursework were more likely to persist than students placed in mandatory remedial coursework. Implications from this study suggest that support services such as tutoring, mentoring, counseling services, early intervention systems, and financial aid assistance will improve study participants’ academic deficiencies and increase persistence beyond the first year.”


Tierney, W. G., Bailey, T., Constantine, J., Finkelstein, N., & Hurd, N. F. (2009). Helping students navigate the path to college: What high schools can do: A practice guide (NCEE #2009-4066). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED506465

From the ERIC abstract:

“Access to higher education remains a challenge for many students who face academic and informational barriers to college entry. This guide targets high schools and school districts, and focuses on effective practices that prepare students academically for college, assist them in completing the steps to college entry, and improve their likelihood of enrolling in college. The guide contains specific steps on how to implement the recommendations that are targeted at school-and district-level administrators, teachers, counselors, and related education staff. The guide also indicates the level of research evidence demonstrating that each recommended practice is effective. This practice guide includes five recommendations for how high schools and school districts can improve access to higher education. The first two recommendations focus on preparing students academically for college by offering a college preparatory curriculum and assessing whether students are building the knowledge and skills needed for college. These two recommendations reflect the panel's belief that students are best served when schools develop a culture of achievement and a culture of evidence. The next recommendation describes how high schools can build and sustain college aspirations by surrounding students with adults and peers who support these aspirations. Recommendations 4 and 5 explain how high schools can assist students in completing the critical steps to college entry, including college entrance exams and college and financial aid applications.”



Methods

Search Strings

The following keywords and search strings were used to search the reference databases and other sources:

  • “academic persistence”
  • “college preparation”
  • “educational attainment”
  • “outcomes of education”
  • “postsecondary education”
  • “postsecondary outcomes”

Databases and Resources

REL Central searched ERIC for relevant references. ERIC is a free online library, sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences, of over 1.6 million citations of education research. Additionally, we searched Google Scholar and Google.

Reference Search and Selection Criteria

When searching for and reviewing references, REL Central considered the following criteria:

  • Date of the Publication: The search and review included references published between 2010 and 2020.
  • Search Priorities of Reference Sources: Search priority was given to ERIC, followed by Google Scholar, and Google.
  • Methodology: The following methodological priorities/considerations were used in the review and selection of the references: (a) study types, such as randomized controlled trials, quasi-experiments, surveys, descriptive analyses, and literature reviews; and (b) target population and sample.

This memorandum is one in a series of quick-turnaround responses to specific questions posed by educational stakeholders in the Central Region (Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming), which is served by the Regional Educational Laboratory Central at Marzano Research. This memorandum was prepared by REL Central under a contract with the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences (IES), Contract ED-IES-17-C-0005, administered by Marzano Research. Its content does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of IES or the U.S. Department of Education nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.