Anderson, K. A. (2018). Policing and middle school: An evaluation of a statewide school resource officer policy. Middle Grades Review, 4(2), article 7. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1192862

From the ERIC abstract: “This study investigates the effectiveness of North Carolina ‘Senate Bill 402, Section 8.36—Grants for School Resource Officers in Elementary and Middle Schools,’ which provides matching state funds to districts for use in middle and elementary schools. Using generalized difference-in-difference and negative binomial hurdle regression designs, seven years of data—inclusive of 110 districts and 471 middle schools—were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of the state-funded SRO program. Results show that offering matched SRO funds to increase policing and training was not associated with reductions in reported acts (infractions) per school year, a key measure of school safety. Racial enrollment percentages, such as higher enrollments of Black and Hispanic students, were generally not associated with increased disciplinary acts. However, school size was associated with increases in reported acts and increased grade level proficiency was associated with reductions in reported acts. Findings also show that public policy activity generally increases after school shootings occur. However, a multi-pronged approach to school safety, beyond preventing mass acts of violence through increased policing, is recommended. Specifically, policies that focus on a broad range of issues, including those that improve academic achievement and address larger societal challenges have potential to enhance school safety.”

Bleakley, P., & Bleakley, C. (2018). School resource officers, “zero tolerance” and the enforcement of compliance in the American education system. Interchange, 49(2), 247–261. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1179139

From the ERIC abstract: “Schools are an important part of any community, and are increasingly considered responsible for the social education of young people as much as their academic instruction. In doing so, many schools have adopted a ‘zero tolerance’ response to student conduct that involves harsh penalties for minor infractions. At the heart of this zero tolerance approach is the use of School Resource Officers (SROs) as a means of enforcing student discipline. Involvement of these sworn police officers in the day-today behaviour management processes of a school has serious implications for students that are targeted by these measures. Students at schools with a SRO presence are five times more likely to be arrested for disorderly conduct, with over 10,000 prosecutions of young people under the so-called ‘disturbing schools’ laws every academic year. SROs and their use as a behavioural deterrent can be seen to influence a juvenile’s likelihood of recidivism and heavily impacts upon their involvement in the school-to-prison pipeline. Direct causal connections exist between the criminalisation of misbehaviour in school and adult incarceration; in this sense, the presence of SROs in American schools must be re-evaluated in order to determine whether they constitute an acceptable application of social control.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Counts, J., Randall, K. N., Ryan, J. B., & Katsiyannis, A. (2018). School resource officers in public schools: A national review. Education and Treatment of Children, 41(4), 405–430. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1192515

From the ERIC abstract: “School Resource Officers (SROs) have become increasingly commonplace in schools across the nation. The role and purpose of SROs in the educational setting have evolved over time, often without formalized policies or guidelines. Increasingly, SROs have been called upon to deal with school discipline issues, which has inadvertently increased the likelihood of student contact with the juvenile justice system, and promoted the school-to-prison pipeline. This has impacted minorities and students with disabilities, especially those with emotional behavioral disorders, who are disproportionately at risk of exposure to adjudication. The purpose of this review is to examine the availability and nature of current state legislation and Department of Education (DOE) recommendations regarding the use and training of SROs. Additionally, recommendations are provided regarding the use of SROs in public schools to provide administrators with assistance on how to develop safe and effective SRO programs.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Cray, M., & Weiler, S. C. (2011). Policy to practice: A look at national and state implementation of school resource officer programs. Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 84(4), 164–170. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ925634

From the ERIC abstract: “In response to questions related to school safety, in the 1990s the school resource officer (SRO) program gained prominence as an effective intervention strategy. Despite the widespread utilization of SROs in America’s public schools, there exists a lack of meaningful research related to practices and effectiveness of SRO programs. A school resource officer is a sworn police officer assigned to a school or a group of schools during the school year. The SRO presence in a school is intended to increase school safety for students, staff, and community members. However, little is actually known about the SRO program and its ability to increase school safety. SRO assignment patterns are documented in this study along with the use of memorandums of understandings (MOU), or other intergovernmental agency agreements, and the role of the MOU in promoting a safe learning environment. School officials interested in increasing school safety through the use of the SRO program are encouraged to develop meaningful MOUs that establish clear guidelines related to the conduct of the sworn police officer in the school building.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Curran, F. C., Fisher, B. W., Viano, S., & Kupchik, A. (2019). Why and when do school resource officers engage in school discipline? The role of context in shaping disciplinary involvement. American Journal of Education, 126(1), 33–63. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1235215

From the ERIC abstract: “The use of law enforcement in schools raises concerns about impacts on school discipline. Drawing on a large-scale qualitative study of approximately fifty schools across two school districts, this study explores school resource officers’ (SROs’) involvement in school discipline and how it is shaped by their context. We use interview, focus group, and observation data from nearly 200 participants to document variability in the way SROs conceptualize and are involved in discipline as well as how such involvement is shaped by context. Although 79% of SROs initially report not being involved in discipline, we find that the majority involve themselves in nuanced ways that are shaped by relationships with school staff, official policies, and the characteristics of students served. Our results point to the need for clarity around SROs’ involvement in discipline and ways that schools can shape contexts to ensure that SROs are not increasing the use of exclusionary practices.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Eklund, K., Meyer, L., & Bosworth, K. (2018). Examining the role of school resource officers on school safety and crisis response teams. Journal of School Violence, 17(2), 139–151. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1169194

From the ERIC abstract: “School resource officers (SROs) are being increasingly employed in schools to respond to incidents of school violence and to help address safety concerns among students and staff. While previous research on school safety and crisis teams has examined the role of school mental health professionals’ and administrators, fewer studies have evaluated the role of the SRO. The current study examined differences between SROs, school administrators, and school mental health professionals (i.e., school psychologists, school counselors, social workers) regarding experiences with crisis events, as well as perceived effectiveness of crisis prevention and response strategies. The most common crisis events across professionals included student assaults, drug offenses, and mandated child abuse and neglect reporting. While SROs and school mental health professionals had similar ratings of school safety strategies, school administrators had less effective appraisals of crisis response plans and crisis postvention activities. Implications for practice and future directions for research are reviewed.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Fisher, B. W., & Hennessy, E. A. (2016). School resource officers and exclusionary discipline in US high schools: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Adolescent Research Review, 1(3), 217–233. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40894-015-0006-8

From the abstract: “Over the past few decades, schools in the U.S. have increasingly relied on school resource officers (SROs) to provide safety and order within school settings. In spite of the intuitive appeal that SROs might offer for making schools safer, critics suggest that there may be unintended negative consequences to this trend, including an increase in exclusionary discipline (i.e., suspensions and expulsions) of students in schools with SROs. This study presents a synthesis of the existing quasi-experimental literature examining the relationship between the presence of SROs and exclusionary discipline in U.S. high schools. Following a systematic literature search, random effects meta-analysis was used to summarize ten effect sizes from seven reports. One meta-analytic model with seven effect sizes achieved statistical significance, yielding a mean rate ratio of 1.21, 95 % CI (1.04, 1.40), indicating that the presence of SROs in high schools was associated with higher rates of exclusionary discipline. A second meta-analytic model with three effect sizes indicated no statistically significant relationship between SRO presence and rates of exclusionary discipline [rate ratio = 1.54, 95 % CI (0.78, 3.06)]. There were high levels of heterogeneity in both models, indicating that unmeasured moderating variables would likely explain some of the variance. Implications for research are discussed.”

James, R. K., Logan, J., & Davis, S. A. (2011). Including School Resource Officers in school-based crisis intervention: Strengthening student support. School Psychology International, 32(2), 210–224. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ921569

From the ERIC abstract: “This article discusses the importance of trained police officers, School Resource Officers (SROs), participating in school-based crisis response efforts. These efforts, mostly preventative in nature, mitigate and de-escalate trauma for students exposed to a wide variety of challenging situations. Scenarios are presented with dialogue between students and SRO, offering insights into how SROs support students’ emotional needs. The article demonstrates how trained SROs’ service complements school-based crisis prevention and intervention efforts.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Javdani, S. (2019). Policing education: An empirical review of the challenges and impact of the work of school police officers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63(3-4), 253–269. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajcp.12306. Full text available from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6597313/

From the abstract: “Public concerns regarding school safety and zero-tolerance education policies have contributed to the growth of a workforce of school police, or frontline school safety professionals who are typically placed in schools with the authority to arrest students (Brown, 2006). Thus, school police represent a workforce positioned at the nexus of multiple systems, including education and juvenile justice, and whose work likely brings them into contact with underserved youth and families. Despite national representation of this growing workforce (e.g., National Association of School Resource Officers), little is known about the responsibilities, roles, training, and influence of school police. This manuscript aims to (a) advance understanding of the school police workforce, including in relation to school police training, needs, roles, and influence, through a systematic review of scholarship in the social sciences, with a focus on peer‐reviewed research in education, psychology, social work, criminology, and juvenile justice; and (b) generate empirically supported recommendations integrating key conclusions that pertain specifically to targeting the challenges faced by the school police workforce and identifying the best strategies to enhance safety‐related goals while mitigating disproportionate legal and educational consequences for underserved youth and families.”

Kurtz, H., Lloyd, S., Harwin, A., & Osher, M. (2018). School policing: Results of a national survey of school resource officers. Bethesda, MD: Editorial Projects in Education. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED586958

From the ERIC abstract: “In recent decades, the number of school resource officers has exploded. In 2013, about 30 percent of schools had one, as compared to 1 percent in 1975, The New York Times reported in 2018. These officers have increasingly received attention in the wake of high-profile school shootings. Yet relatively little is known about them. Who are they? How do they see their roles in schools? What kind of training have they received? In the spring of 2018, the Education Week Research Center set out to answer these and other questions by surveying this relatively unknown group. The results are detailed in this report. Survey areas include the following: (1) School Resource Officers and Their Employers; (2) Roles and Duties; (3) Challenges and Morale; and (4) School Shootings.”

Owens, E. G. (2017). Testing the school‐to‐prison pipeline. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 36(1), 11–37. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1122188

From the ERIC abstract: “The School-to-Prison Pipeline is a social phenomenon where students become formally involved with the criminal justice system as a result of school policies that use law enforcement, rather than discipline, to address behavioral problems. A potentially important part of the School-to-Prison Pipeline is the use of sworn School Resource Officers (SROs), but there is little research on the causal effect of hiring these officers on school crime or arrests. Using credibly exogenous variation in the use of SROs generated by federal hiring grants specifically to place law enforcement in schools, I find evidence that law enforcement agencies learn about more crimes in schools upon receipt of a grant, and are more likely to make arrests for those crimes. This primarily affects children under the age of 15. However, I also find evidence that SROs increase school safety, and help law enforcement agencies make arrests for drug crimes occurring on and off school grounds.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Pentek, C., & Eisenberg, M. E. (2018). School resource officers, safety, and discipline: Perceptions and experiences across racial/ethnic groups in Minnesota secondary schools. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 141–148. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190740917307570?casa_token=0InK3VbwVQoAAAAA:nUFiolJsWnTO4sdQT0UpLuQJFxW-lb-nFtrRpklLMODpo95UxOur3viijo7NyyiCIAXW5ToPhw

From the abstract: “School resource officers (SROs) are commonplace in schools, but little research has examined students’ views of these officers. This study used a large school-based sample (N = 126,868) to test associations between the awareness of presence and perceptions of SROs, school safety and disciplinary experiences, and differences by race/ethnicity. 71% of students reported awareness of an SRO and perceptions were fairly neutral. Four of six racial/ethnic groups had no statistical difference in feeling safe associated with SRO presence, and perceptions of SROs were associated with feeling safe (OR = 1.08) and small decreases in discipline experiences (OR = 0.87). Interaction terms indicated that students of Color had smaller benefits related to SROs than White students. SRO programs may deserve critical review and further training to improve well-being among students of all backgrounds.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Petrosino, A., Fronius, T., & Taylor, D. (2020). Research in brief: School-based law enforcement. Regional Educational Laboratory West at WestEd and Comprehensive Center Network Region 15. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/west/Publications/Details/283

From the abstract: “Public school districts and police departments in the United States have been collaborating since the 1950s, often in efforts to build school-police relationships and to address school-based violence and other threats to the safety and well-being of students, teachers, and staff. One result of these partnerships is that law enforcement officers have become an increasingly common presence in schools around the country. Recent events, particularly the police killing of George Floyd, have increased the public’s scrutiny of police and their roles, including their presence in schools. Since May 2020, several districts in the United States have undergone deliberations about whether to maintain a police presence in their schools, which has resulted in some local jurisdictions opting to remove or reduce police presence. This brief sets out what is currently known about school-based law enforcement.”

Robles-Piña, R. A., & Denham, M. A. (2012). School resource officers for bullying interventions: A mixed-methods analysis. Journal of School Violence, 11(1), 38–55. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ951726

From the ERIC abstract: “The number of school police officers, School Resource Officers (SROs), is increasing on school campuses to assist in preventing school violence, and in particular bullying. This mixed-methods study was conducted to compare the knowledge and perceptions of SROs (N = 184) hired by independent school districts (ISD SROs) and those contracted from law enforcement agencies (CSROs) about their knowledge and perceptions about bullying interventions. By comparison, ISD SROs were more aware than CSROs about knowledge of school bullying plans, the need for social skills training, enforcing existing school policies regarding bullying intervention strategies, and using more conflict resolution strategies. Additionally, ISD SROs were less likely to use punitive law enforcement strategies than were CSROs.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Ryan, J. B., Katsiyannis, A., Counts, J. M., & Shelnut, J. C. (2018). The growing concerns regarding school resource officers. Intervention in School and Clinic, 53(3), 188–192. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1163923

From the ERIC abstract: “There have been an increasing number of incidents in which school resource officers (SRO) have been used to manage student disciplinary issues with disastrous results. Court cases brought by parents and advocacy groups claim SROs have traumatized and injured students. This article addresses several critical issues concerning SROs being used to manage student misbehavior, lack of training, lack of policies regulating roles and responsibilities, and inadvertently promoting a school-to-prison pipeline. The authors provide recommendations and best practices for future use.”

Stern, A., & Petrosino, A. (2018). What do we know about the effects of school-based law enforcement on school safety? San Francisco, CA: WestEd. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED595727

From the ERIC abstract: “Public school districts and police departments in the United States often collaborate to address school-based violence and other threats to the safety and well-being of students, teachers, and staff. As a result of these partnerships, law enforcement officers have become an increasingly common presence in schools around the country, even at the elementary school level. But what does research tell us about the impact of school-based law enforcement on school safety outcomes? Developed by the WestEd Justice & Prevention Research Center, this brief presents a definition of school-based law enforcement and summarizes some of the relevant research about its effects on students and schools. The authors found little rigorous evaluative research on the effects of having a police presence in schools, but they see promise in future studies that have potential to inform school and district leaders, as well as policymakers.”

Theriot, M. T., & Cuellar, M. J. (2016). School resource officers and students’ rights. Contemporary Justice Review, 19(3), 363–379. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10282580.2016.1181978?scroll=top&needAccess=true

From the abstract: “The safety of students at American schools has become a national priority. With every incident of lethal violence, public fear swells and the demand for effective violence prevention methods increases. School resource officer (SRO) programs that assign sworn law enforcement officers to schools are frequently identified as one straightforward and popular strategy for making schools safer and more secure. However, the placement of these officers at schools raises complex issues and poses new challenges to students’ rights, including the risks of unreasonable search and seizure, the inappropriate sharing of confidential information, and students’ decreased feelings of safety. In this paper, the authors will provide the reader with a review of these students’ rights issues and the possible consequences to students and schools when these rights are not respected. The authors then provide the reader with a review of the relevant literature on the relationship between SROs and students and outlines specific recommendations for the successful implementation and operation of SRO programs that foster positive and respectful connections with students and school officials.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Turner, E. O., & Beneke, A. J. (2020). “Softening” School Resource Officers: The extension of police presence in schools in an era of Black Lives Matter, school shootings, and rising inequality. Race Ethnicity and Education, 23(2), 221–240. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1240049

From the ERIC abstract: “This study examines how and why a US city that is known nationally for its political progressivism continuously reaffirm its decision to maintain and expand the School Resource Officers (SRO) program in its high schools. By examining local discourses within a racial capitalism framework, we show that elements of racial neoliberalism re-emerge within a neoliberal therapeutic discourse that dominated decision-making processes and countered challenges to SROs in schools. This discourse argued that individual officers benefitted low-income students of color by providing care and challenging school racism. Despite research evidence and a counter discourse, which argued that SROs enacted harm and racism against low-income students of color, especially Black students, and should be removed from schools, SROs came to be an ‘easy’ fix to racial neoliberalism in the school district and city and contributed to the continuation and extension of the school to prison nexus.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.

Weisburst, E. K. (2019). Patrolling public schools: The impact of funding for school police on student discipline and long‐term education outcomes. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 38(2), 338–365. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1208346

From the ERIC abstract: “As police officers have become increasingly common in U.S. public schools, their role in school discipline has often expanded. While there is growing public debate about the consequences of police presence in schools, there is scant evidence of the impact of police on student discipline and academic outcomes. This paper provides the first quasi-experimental estimate of funding for school police on student outcomes, leveraging variation in federal Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) grants. Exploiting detailed data on over 2.5 million students in Texas, I find that federal grants for police in schools increase middle school discipline rates by 6 percent. The rise in discipline is driven by sanctions for low-level offenses or school code of conduct violations. Further, I find that Black students experience the largest increases in discipline. I also find that exposure to a three-year federal grant for school police is associated with a 2.5 percent decrease in high school graduation rates and a 4 percent decrease in college enrollment rates.”

Note: REL Midwest was unable to locate a link to the full-text version of this resource. Although REL Midwest tries to provide publicly available resources whenever possible, it was determined that this resource may be of interest to you. It may be found through university or public library systems.