The COVID-19 global pandemic prompted school closures across the United States, requiring students to attend school remotely. With the goal of providing relevant information to educators and administrators, the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) conducted a rapid evidence review to report on what works in distance learning programming.
The process began with a call for nominations of rigorous research that evaluates the effectiveness of distance learning practices or products.
Publication of this citation list is provided to the field as a way to highlight the breadth of research available. Inclusion within this list is not an endorsement of the intervention or the study by the WWC, IES, or the US Department of Education. If the studies have been reviewed by the WWC, then a link to the study review page is included. Note that not all of the studies listed would be eligible for WWC review or meet WWC standards.
Displaying 39 results.
Baker, Rachel, Evans, Brent, Li, Qiujie, Cung, Bianca (2019) Does Inducing Students to Schedule Lecture Watching in Online Classes Improve Their Academic Performance? An Experimental Analysis of a Time Management Intervention
Research in Higher Education, v60 n4 p521-552 Jun 2019
Time management skills are an essential component of college student success, especially in online classes. Through a randomized control trial of students in a for-credit online course at a public 4-year university, we test the efficacy of a scheduling intervention aimed at improving students' time management. Results indicate the intervention had positive effects on initial achievement scores; students who were given the opportunity to schedule their lecture watching in advance scored about a third of a standard deviation better on the first quiz than students who were not given that opportunity. These effects are concentrated in students with the lowest self-reported time management skills. However, these effects diminish over time such that we see a marginally significant negative effect of treatment on the last week's quiz grade and no difference in overall course scores. We examine the effect of the intervention on plausible mechanisms to explain the observed achievement effects. We find no evidence that the intervention affected cramming, procrastination, or the time at which students did work.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Bernacki, M. L., Vosicka, L., Utz, J. C., & Warren, C. B. (2020) Effects of digital learning skill training on the academic performance of undergraduates in science and mathematics
Journal of Educational Psychology
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Bernacki, M. L., Vosicka, L.k, & Utz, J.C. (2020) Can a brief, digital skill training intervention help undergraduates “learn to learn” and improve their STEM achievement?
Journal of Educational Psychology, v112 n4 p765-781
Students who drop out of their science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) majors commonly report that they lack skills critical to STEM learning and career pursuits. Many training programs exist to develop students' learning skills and they typically achieve small to medium effects on behaviors and performance. However, these programs require large investments of students' and instructors' time and effort, which limits their applicability to large lecture course formats commonly employed in early undergraduate STEM coursework. This study examined whether brief, digital training modules designed to help students apply learning strategies and self-regulated learning principles effectively in their STEM courses can impact students' behaviors and performance in a large biology lecture course. Results indicate that a 2-hr "Science of Learning to Learn" training had significant effects on students' use of resources for planning, monitoring, and strategy use, and improved scores on quizzes and exams. These findings indicate that a brief, self-guided, online training can increase desirable learning behaviors and improve STEM performance with minimal cost to learners or instructors. Implications for future design of interventions and their provision to students in need of support are discussed.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Bernacki, Matthew L., Vosicka, Lucie, Utz, Jenifer (2017) Web-Delivered Training to Improve Learning and Achievement for Underrepresented and First-Generation STEM Learners
AERA Online Paper Repository, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Antonio, TX, Apr 27-May 1, 2017)
Many STEM majors fail to complete their degrees, and those who leave report they lack key STEM learning skills. This study examined whether delivering brief trainings that teach learning skills to students directly in their STEM course's learning management system site would encourage effective learning behaviors, improve achievement, and provide greater benefits for those most underrepresented in the STEM workforce: students from underrepresented ethnic minority groups and first generation college students. Students who spent 60-90 minutes completing training modules made greater use of resources supporting planning, monitoring, and cognitive strategy use, and outperformed students in the control group on initial and final exams. Effects of training were even more pronounced for students from underrepresented minority groups and first generation students.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Bruchok, Christiana, Mar, Christopher, Craig, Scotty D. (2017) Is Free Recall Active: The Testing Effect through the ICAP Lens
Journal of Interactive Learning Research, v28 n2 p127-148 Apr 2017
Amidst evidence in favor of "active learning," online instruction widely implements passive design and tests learners' retrieval performance as opposed to learners' understanding. Literature reporting the testing effect promotes recall as a learning tool. The Interactive>Constructive>Active>Passive taxonomy would place quizzing during instruction somewhere on the active learning spectrum since learners manipulate the content in some way. Studying without physical manipulation of the content, the typical comparison group for the testing effect, is inherently passive; therefore, the superiority of testing to studying reflects the superiority of active to passive learning. Tests can elicit an array of engagement behaviors, and ICAP differentiates some as leading to better learning outcomes than others. The present preliminary study found free recall, germane to the testing effect literature and easily implemented in online instruction, to be only an active activity per ICAP criteria.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Chen, Cheng-Chia, Huang, ChingChih, Gribbins, Michele, Swan, Karen (2018) Gamify Online Courses with Tools Built into Your Learning Management System (LMS) to Enhance Self-Determined and Active Learning
Online Learning, v22 n3 p41-54 Sep 2018
"Gamified" active learning has been shown to increase students' academic performance and engagement and help them make more social connections than standard course settings. However, the costs to use an educational game design with efficient delivery of the game/course plan can be problematic. Our first objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of gamification by using existing techniques (e.g., simple HTML-based games) and readily available collaborative tools (e.g., wikis) from a typical learning management system (LMS), such as Blackboard. Our second objective was to examine students' attitudes toward gamification (e.g., perceived usefulness). An online survey was given to 80 graduate students who took an entry-level biostatistics course from 2015 to 2017 at a midwestern university in the United States. Our study was conducted using an experimental group (class with implementation of gamification) and control group (class without implementation of gamified activities) that were randomly selected from graduate-level statistics courses. A Welch's independent "t"-test revealed a significant difference (p < 0.001) in the mean exam scores of the experimental and control groups. The difference favored classes with gamification. The findings suggest that using built-in LMS tools to design gamified learning activities can enhance students' academic performance and the competencies gained, as well as provide more diversified learning methods and motivation, and offer easy modifications for different learning needs.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: Yes
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Chingos, Matthew M., Griffiths, Rebecca J., Mulhern, Christine (2017) Can Low-Cost Online Summer Math Programs Improve Student Preparation for College-Level Math? Evidence from Randomized Experiments at Three Universities
Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, v10 n4 p794-816 2017
Every year many students enter college without the math preparation needed to succeed in their desired programs of study. Many of these students struggle to catch up, especially those who are required to take remedial math courses before entering college-level math. Increasing the number of students who begin at the appropriate level of math has become an important focus for educators and policymakers. We conducted randomized experiments of low-cost online summer math programs at three universities to test whether this type of intervention can increase access to math preparation, improve placement and enrollment in fall math classes, and improve performance in first-year math courses. Students who received the intervention engaged with the platform, though at relatively low rates, and were more likely to retake the placement test and improve their scores than students in the control group. However, these improved scores did not translate into enrolling in higher level math courses, obtaining more math credits, or improving grades in math-related courses during the first year of college. Thus, providing students access to this online tool did not improve their math skills.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
DeBoer, Jennifer, Haney, Casey, Atiq, S. Zahra, Smith, Casey, Cox, David (2019) Hands-On Engagement Online: Using a Randomised Control Trial to Estimate the Impact of an At-Home Lab Kit on Student Attitudes and Achievement in a MOOC
European Journal of Engineering Education, v44 n1-2 p234-252 2019
A shortcoming of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) is the lack of substantive integration of hands-on activities into online classrooms. We conducted a randomised control trial (RCT) in a MOOC where we sent the treatment group at-home lab kits with which they could perform experiments in their own homes. In our intervention research, we found that, at the end of the course, students in the treatment group had significantly higher exam scores and levels of self-efficacy to perform in the topic area than their control group counterparts. Students' growth in self-concept was not significantly different. Findings have implications for distance courses in engineering and other science, technology, engineering, and math areas that traditionally have laboratory components. Furthermore, our findings illustrate the potential amplifying effect of this learning environment configuration for engineering instructors. Finally, this study illustrates how the dispersed nature of MOOCs facilitates RCTs and a recursive process linking theory and practice.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Dennis, A. R., Abaci, S., Morrone, A. S., Plaskoff, J., McNamara, K. O. (2016) Effects of E-Textbook Instructor Annotations on Learner Performance
Journal of Computing in Higher Education, v28 n2 p221-235
With additional features and increasing cost advantages, e-textbooks are becoming a viable alternative to paper textbooks. One important feature offered by enhanced e-textbooks (e-textbooks with interactive functionality) is the ability for instructors to annotate passages with additional insights. This paper describes a pilot study that examines the effects of instructor e-textbook annotations on student learning as measured by multiple-choice and open-ended test items. Fifty-two college students in a business course were randomly assigned either a paper or an electronic version of a textbook chapter. Results show that the e-textbook group outperformed the paper textbook group on the open-ended test item, while both groups performed equally on the multiple-choice subject test. These results suggest that the instructional affordances that an interactive e-textbook provides may lead to higher-level learning.
Peer reviewed: No
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Heppen, Jessica B., Walters, Kirk, Clements, Margaret, Faria, Ann-Marie, Tobey, Cheryl, Sorensen, Nicholas, Culp, Katherine (2011) Access to Algebra I: The Effects of Online Mathematics for Grade 8 Students. NCEE 2012-4021
National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance
This report presents findings from a randomized control trial designed to inform the decisions of policymakers who are considering using online courses to provide access to Algebra I in grade 8. It focuses on students judged by their schools to be ready to take Algebra I in grade 8 but who attend schools that do not offer the course. The study tested the impact of offering an online Algebra I course on students' algebra achievement at the end of grade 8 and their subsequent likelihood of participating in an advanced mathematics course sequence in high school. The study was designed to respond to both broad public interest in the deployment of online courses for K-12 students and to calls from policymakers to provide students with adequate pathways to advanced coursetaking sequences in mathematics (National Mathematics Advisory Panel 2008). This study is the first of its kind to rigorously evaluate the impact of offering an online version of Algebra I in schools that otherwise do not typically offer the course, even though they have students who are ready to take it. For educators and students facing similar challenges, the results of this study may be particularly informative and promising. Results showed that offering an online course to AR students is an effective way to broaden access to Algebra I in grade 8 and later, to more challenging mathematics course opportunities. The study demonstrates that an online course as implemented is more effective in promoting students' success in mathematics than existing practices in these schools. Appended are: (1) Study Design, Study Samples, and Statistical Precision; (2) Measures; (3) Intervention Features; (4) Estimation Methods and Hypothesis Testing; (5) Sensitivity Analyses; and (6) Missing Data and Multiple Imputation. (Contains 77 tables, 12 figures and 61 footnotes.)
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: Yes
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards without reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Huang, Xiaoxia, Mayer, Richard E. (2019) Adding Self-Efficacy Features to an Online Statistics Lesson
Journal of Educational Computing Research, v57 n4 p1003-1037 Jul 2019
This study investigated the effectiveness of adding four self-efficacy features to an online statistics lesson, based on Bandura's four sources of self-efficacy information. In a randomized between-subjects experiment, participants learned statistical rules in an example-based online environment with four self-efficacy features added (treatment group) or not (control group). Results of analyses of variance showed that the treatment group performed better on practice (d = 0.36), retention (d = 0.39), and transfer (d = 0.42) tests as well as reporting higher self-efficacy (d = 0.44) and lower task anxiety (d = -0.45). Further, mediation analyses revealed that the effect of treatment group on performance was fully mediated by task anxiety and self-efficacy. The results support the inclusion of self-efficacy features in online mathematics lessons, when the goal is to improve learning outcomes by reducing anxiety and increasing self-efficacy. The results show the utility of applying Bandura's model of self-efficacy to technology-based learning environments.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Kennedy, Michael J., Deshler, Donald D., Lloyd, John Wills (2015) Effects of Multimedia Vocabulary Instruction on Adolescents with Learning Disabilities
Journal of Learning Disabilities, v48 n1 p22-38 Jan-Feb 2015
The purpose of this experimental study is to investigate the effects of using content acquisition podcasts (CAPs), an example of instructional technology, to provide vocabulary instruction to adolescents with and without learning disabilities (LD). A total of 279 urban high school students, including 30 with LD in an area related to reading, were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions with instruction occurring at individual computer terminals over a 3-week period. Each of the four conditions contained different configurations of multimedia-based instruction and evidence-based vocabulary instruction. Dependent measures of vocabulary knowledge indicated that students with LD who received vocabulary instruction using CAPs through an explicit instructional methodology and the keyword mnemonic strategy significantly outperformed other students with LD who were taught using the same content, but with multimedia instruction that did not adhere to a specific theoretical design framework. Results for general education students mirrored those for students with LD. Students also completed a satisfaction measure following instruction with multimedia and expressed overall agreement that CAPs are useful for learning vocabulary terms.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards without reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Kim, Heesung, Ke, Fengfeng, Paek, Insu (2017) Game-Based Learning in an OpenSim-Supported Virtual Environment on Perceived Motivational Quality of Learning
Technology, Pedagogy and Education, v26 n5 p617-631 2017
This experimental study was intended to examine whether game-based learning (GBL) that encompasses four particular game characteristics (challenges, a storyline, immediate rewards and the integration of game-play with learning content) in an OpenSimulator-supported virtual reality learning environment can improve perceived motivational quality of the learning activity (P-MQLA) for elementary school students. In this pre- and post-test experimental comparison study, data were collected from 132 fourth-graders through a Short Instructional Materials Motivation Survey. The same tasks were provided for the experimental and control groups, except that the control group's tasks did not include the four aforementioned gaming characteristics. The non-GBL for the control group involved mainly web-based word problems such as selecting the correct answer by clicking on the potential responses. P-MQLA was improved after the intervention in both groups. There is a trend that the experimental group improved the P-MQLA more than the control group, at borderline statistical significance. The analysis of covariance also indicated a significant interaction between the group variable and the pre-intervention P-MQLA, indicating that the effect of the virtual reality-supported GBL is moderated by learners' pre-intervention report of P-MQLA.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Ineligible for review
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Kim, Yanghee (2013) Digital Peers to Help Children's Text Comprehension and Perceptions
Educational Technology & Society, v16 n4 p59-70 2013
Affable Reading Tutor (ART) is an online reading lesson designed for children who are starting to comprehend reading. A digital, human-like character (virtual peer) in ART serves as a peer model that demonstrates the use of the reading comprehension strategy called "questioning" to help improve the learners' comprehension of expository texts. This study, with 141 boys and girls in the fourth and fifth grades in the United States, examined the effects of virtual-peer presence (presence, absence, and control) on learners' text comprehension and also the effects of learner gender and virtual-peer attributes (human-like male, human-like female, robot still image) on learners' perceptions of their peer and on their text comprehension. The results revealed that the virtual-peer presence group outperformed both the absence group and the control group in the immediate and delayed posttests text comprehension. There were mixed results in the impacts of learner gender and virtual-peer attributes on text comprehension. The learners' perceptions of their agent were not differentiated by neither learner gender nor virtual-peer attributes. The findings are discussed with virtual-peer design implication. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Kloos, Heidi, Sliemers, Stephanie, Cartwright, Macey, Mano, Quintino, Stage, Scott (2019) MindPlay Virtual Reading Coach: Does It Affect Reading Fluency in Elementary School?
Online Submission, Frontiers in Education v4 n67 Jul 2019
Important strides have been made in the science of learning to read. Yet, many students still struggle to attain reading proficiency. This calls for sustained efforts to bridge theoretical insights with applied considerations about ideal pedagogy. The current study was designed to contribute to this conversation, namely by looking at the efficacy of an online reading program. The chosen reading program, referred to as MindPlay Virtual Reading Coach (MVRC), emphasizes the mastery of basic reading skills to support the development of reading fluency. Its focus on basic skills diverges from the goal of increasing reading motivation. And its focus on reading fluency, vs. broad literacy achievement, offers an alternative to already existing reading enrichment. In order to test the efficacy of MVRC, we recruited three school districts. One district provided data from elementary schools that used the MVRC program in Grades 2 to 6 (N = 2,531 total). The other two districts participated in a quasi-experimental design: Six 2nd-grade classrooms and nine 4th-grade classrooms were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) instruction as usual, (2) instruction with an alternative online reading program, and (3) instruction with MVRC. Complete data sets were available from 142 2nd-graders and 172 4th-graders. Three assessments from the MVRC screener were used: They assessed reading fluency, phonic skills, and listening vocabulary at two time points: before and after the intervention. Results show a clear advantage of MVRC on reading fluency, more so than on phonics or listening vocabulary. At the same time, teachers reported concerns with MVRC, highlighting the challenge with reading programs that emphasize basic-skills mastery over programs that seek to encourage reading.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: Yes
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards with reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Lou, Anna J., Jaeggi, Susanne M. (2020) Reducing the Prior-Knowledge Achievement Gap by Using Technology-Assisted Guided Learning in an Undergraduate Chemistry Course
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, v57 n3 p368-392 Mar 2020
There have been many practical obstacles for teachers to implement evidence-based educational technology, especially in STEM classrooms. By implementing learning principles related to Cognitive Load Theory, we developed an innovative Technology-Assisted Guided Learning (TAGL) approach and its web-based instructional tool, combining expertise from educational research and best teaching practices to enhance guided student-centered learning in chemistry. A total of 185 community college students were randomly assigned to learn stoichiometry through either TAGL or one of two active control interventions, traditional direct instruction and Khan Academy, a widely used web learning platform. We found that the TAGL group significantly outperformed both active control groups immediately after instruction, and furthermore, despite the fact that all groups received additional instruction in stoichiometry, the beneficial effects of TAGL compared to the control groups were maintained a month later. Notably, TAGL was able to eliminate the achievement gap between students with low prior knowledge and students with high prior knowledge. Furthermore, prior-knowledge activation was found to be especially beneficial for students with low prior knowledge. Our work contributes to existing research in learning theories and provides new insight toward the development of more effective and adaptive instructional designs. By translating research into practice, this study demonstrates the great potential of using innovative computer-based technology to improve student learning for all.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Lynch, Kathleen, Kim, James S. (2017) Effects of a Summer Mathematics Intervention for Low-Income Children: A Randomized Experiment [Tenmarks]
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, v39 n1 p31-53 Mar 2017
Prior research suggests that summer learning loss among low-income children contributes to income-based gaps in achievement and educational attainment. We present results from a randomized experiment of a summer mathematics program conducted in a large, high-poverty urban public school district. Children in the third to ninth grade (N = 263) were randomly assigned to an offer of an online summer mathematics program, the same program plus a free laptop computer, or the control group. Being randomly assigned to the program plus laptop condition caused children to experience significantly higher reported levels of summer home mathematics engagement relative to their peers in the control group. Treatment and control children performed similarly on distal measures of academic achievement. We discuss implications for future research.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Lynch, Kathleen, Kim, James S. (2017) Effects of a Summer Mathematics Intervention for Low-Income Children: A Randomized Experiment [Tenmarks with a free laptop]
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, v39 n1 p31-53 Mar 2017
Prior research suggests that summer learning loss among low-income children contributes to income-based gaps in achievement and educational attainment. We present results from a randomized experiment of a summer mathematics program conducted in a large, high-poverty urban public school district. Children in the third to ninth grade (N = 263) were randomly assigned to an offer of an online summer mathematics program, the same program plus a free laptop computer, or the control group. Being randomly assigned to the program plus laptop condition caused children to experience significantly higher reported levels of summer home mathematics engagement relative to their peers in the control group. Treatment and control children performed similarly on distal measures of academic achievement. We discuss implications for future research.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
MacKenzie, Lydia M. (2019) Improving Learning Outcomes: Unlimited vs. Limited Attempts and Time for Supplemental Interactive Online Learning Activities
Journal of Curriculum and Teaching, v8 n4 p36-45 2019
Research indicates the use of interactive online learning (IOL) instructional strategies such as multiple choice, "drag and drop" matching exercises, and case discussions, in online courses enhances learning and results in better learning outcomes. While some instructors might use interactive resources for regular assessments that only allow for one attempt, this experiment examines whether limiting the attempts and the time to complete IOL instructional strategies significantly improves learning outcomes as measured by performance scores on two required exams. The author posit that students who have limited attempts (2) and limited time (20 minutes) will in fact read the chapters before attempting to complete the interactive online activities, thus increasing the correlation between the interactive online activity scores and exam scores. Unlimited attempts and unlimited time provide students with the opportunity to search the textbook for the answers without reading the assigned chapters. As anticipated, the experimental groups with limited attempts and limited time on the IOL activities did demonstrate a statistically significant relationship to combined exam scores. The findings indicate that limited attempts and limited time on formative assessments correlated with exam scores while those formative assessments without constraints did not.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: Yes
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
McGuire, Patrick, Tu, Shihfen, Logue, Mary Ellin, Mason, Craig A., Ostrow, Korinn (2017) Counterintuitive Effects of Online Feedback in Middle School Math: Results from a Randomized Controlled Trial in ASSISTments [Image-based feedback of ASSISTments]
Educational Media International, v54 n3 p231-244 2017
This study compared the effects of three different feedback formats provided to sixth grade mathematics students within a web-based online learning platform, ASSISTments. A sample of 196 students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) text-based feedback; (2) image-based feedback; and (3) correctness only feedback. Regardless of condition, students solved a set of problems pertaining to the division of fractions by fractions. This mathematics content was representative of challenging sixth grade mathematics Common Core State Standard (6.NS.A.1). Students randomly assigned to receive text-based feedback (Condition A) or image-based feedback (Condition B) outperformed those randomly assigned to the correctness only group (Condition C). However, these differences were not statistically significant (F(2,108) = 1.394, p = 0.25). Results of this study also demonstrated a completion-bias. Students randomly assigned to Condition B were less likely to complete the problem set than those assigned to Conditions A and C. To conclude, we discuss the counterintuitive findings observed in this study and implications related to developing and implementing feedback in online learning environments for middle school mathematics.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
McGuire, Patrick, Tu, Shihfen, Logue, Mary Ellin, Mason, Craig A., Ostrow, Korinn (2017) Counterintuitive Effects of Online Feedback in Middle School Math: Results from a Randomized Controlled Trial in ASSISTments [Text-based feedback in ASSISTments]
Educational Media International, v54 n3 p231-244 2017
This study compared the effects of three different feedback formats provided to sixth grade mathematics students within a web-based online learning platform, ASSISTments. A sample of 196 students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) text-based feedback; (2) image-based feedback; and (3) correctness only feedback. Regardless of condition, students solved a set of problems pertaining to the division of fractions by fractions. This mathematics content was representative of challenging sixth grade mathematics Common Core State Standard (6.NS.A.1). Students randomly assigned to receive text-based feedback (Condition A) or image-based feedback (Condition B) outperformed those randomly assigned to the correctness only group (Condition C). However, these differences were not statistically significant (F(2,108) = 1.394, p = 0.25). Results of this study also demonstrated a completion-bias. Students randomly assigned to Condition B were less likely to complete the problem set than those assigned to Conditions A and C. To conclude, we discuss the counterintuitive findings observed in this study and implications related to developing and implementing feedback in online learning environments for middle school mathematics.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Meyer, Bonnie J. F., Wijekumar, Kausalai K., Lin, Yu-Chu (2011) Individualizing a Web-Based Structure Strategy Intervention for Fifth Graders' Comprehension of Nonfiction
Journal of Educational Psychology, v103 n1 p140-168 Feb 2011
In the study, we investigated effects of 2 different versions of a web-based tutoring system to provide 5th-grade students with strategy instruction about text structure, which was an intervention to improve reading comprehension. The design feature assessed varied in individualization of instruction (individualized or standard). The more individually tailored version was developed to provide remediation or enrichment lessons matched to the individual needs of each student. Stratified random assignment was used to compare the effects of 2 versions of the 6-month web-based intervention. Students in the individualized condition made greater improvements from pretest to posttest on a standardized reading comprehension test (d = 0.55) than did students in the standard condition (d = 0.30). Students receiving more individualized instruction demonstrated higher mastery achievement goals when working in the lessons than did students receiving the standard instruction (d = 0.53). Students receiving more individualized instruction showed greater improvement in using signaling, better work in lessons, and more positive posttest attitudes toward computers than did students receiving standard instruction. Students in both conditions improved their recall of ideas from texts and their use of the text structure strategy and comparison signaling words. (Contains 3 footnotes, 16 tables, and 3 figures.)
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards without reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Meyer, Bonnie J. F., Wijekumar, Kay, Middlemiss, Wendy, Higley, Kelli, Lei, Pui-Wa, Meier, Catherine, Spielvogel, James (2010) Web-Based Tutoring of the Structure Strategy with or without Elaborated Feedback or Choice for Fifth- and Seventh-Grade Readers
Reading Research Quarterly, v45 n1 p62-92 Jan-Mar 2010
This study investigated the effects of different versions of Web-based instruction focused on text structure on fifth- and seventh-grade students' reading comprehension. Stratified random assignment was employed in a two-factor experiment embedded within a pretest and multiple posttests design (immediate and four-month delayed posttests). The two factors were type of feedback provided by the Web-based tutor (elaborated vs. simple feedback) and the motivational factor of choice of text topics in practice lessons (student choice of texts vs. no choice). These factors were examined to learn how they affected performance after the six-month, 90-minutes/week intervention. Students who received elaborated feedback performed better on a standardized test of reading comprehension than students who received simple feedback. Learning how to attend to errors from the elaborated feedback tutor yielded large gains in test performance. Simple feedback did not help the least skilled third of readers move from complete lack of competency to competency using the structure strategy with problem-and-solution text. Choice between two topics for practice lessons did not increase reading comprehension. Substantial effects sizes were found from pretest to posttest on various measures of reading comprehension: recall, strategy competence, and standardized reading comprehension test scores. Maintenance of performance over summer break was found for most measures. The study informs research and teaching about Web-based reading tutors, feedback, comprehension, and top-level text structure. (Contains 16 tables, 8 figures and 2 notes.)
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards without reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Moradi, Moein, Liu, Lin, Luchies, Carl, Patterson, Meagan M., Darban, Behnaz (2018) Enhancing Teaching-Learning Effectiveness by Creating Online Interactive Instructional Modules for Fundamental Concepts of Physics and Mathematics
Education Sciences, v8 Article 109 2018
This study explored the effectiveness of online instructional modules for providing supplementary instruction in basic mathematics and physics concepts. The modules were developed in accordance with a cognitive apprenticeship model. Participants (N = 47) were students enrolled in a required Statics course at a midwestern university. Participants were randomly assigned to either an intervention or control group. The results show that the intervention group performed significantly better on post-tests through using the online instructional modules, while there was no significant improvement of performance in the control group. Based on survey results, students expressed their engagement to the instructional materials. Furthermore, they expressed a self-paced learning experience through providing feedback that they had control over the course materials by using the developed online instructional modules. Survey results also were indicative of students' approval of using the modules as a supplemental material to classroom lectures.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: Yes
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Nye, Benjamin D., Pavlik, Philip I., Jr., Windsor, Alistair, Olney, Andrew M., Hajeer, Mustafa, Hu, Xiangen (2018) SKOPE-IT (Shareable Knowledge Objects as Portable Intelligent Tutors): Overlaying Natural Language Tutoring on an Adaptive Learning System for Mathematics
International Journal of STEM Education, v5 Article 12 2018
Background: This study investigated learning outcomes and user perceptions from interactions with a hybrid intelligent tutoring system created by combining the AutoTutor conversational tutoring system with the Assessment and Learning in Knowledge Spaces (ALEKS) adaptive learning system for mathematics. This hybrid intelligent tutoring system (ITS) uses a service-oriented architecture to combine these two web-based systems. Self-explanation tutoring dialogs were used to talk students through step-by-step worked examples to algebra problems. These worked examples presented an isomorphic problem to the preceding algebra problem that the student could not solve in the adaptive learning system. Results: Due to crossover issues between conditions, experimental versus control condition assignment did not show significant differences in learning gains. However, strong dose-dependent learning gains were observed that could not be otherwise explained by either initial mastery or time-on-task. User perceptions of the dialog-based tutoring were mixed, and survey results indicate that this may be due to the pacing of dialog-based tutoring using voice, students judging the agents based on their own performance (i.e., the quality of their answers to agent questions), and the students' expectations about mathematics pedagogy (i.e., expecting to solving problems rather than talking about concepts). Across all users, learning was most strongly influenced by time spent studying, which correlated with students' self-reported tendencies toward effort avoidance, effective study habits, and beliefs about their ability to improve in mathematics with effort. Conclusions: Integrating multiple adaptive tutoring systems with complementary strengths shows some potential to improve learning. However, managing learner expectations during transitions between systems remains an open research area. Finally, while personalized adaptation can improve learning efficiency, effort and time-on-task for learning remains a dominant factor that must be considered by interventions.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Perry, S. Marshall (2014) A Delayed Treatment Control Group Design Study of an After-School Online Tutoring Program in Reading
IGI Global
This chapter concerns a year-long, United States federally-funded evaluation of Educate Online, an online, at home, 1:1 tutoring program aimed at improving reading performance for middle school students who are below grade level. Participating students receive after-school instruction from teachers in real-time over Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) connections. The researcher discusses study findings, the methodological challenges of conducting research on online tutoring, the multiple perspectives for understanding the effectiveness of a tutoring program, and areas for additional research. The chapter examines a key aspect of the evaluation, a delayed treatment control group design study to determine the effect that involvement in the tutoring program has upon student academic achievement in reading. [This chapter was published in: F. J. García-Peñalvo, A. M. Seoane Pardo (Eds.), "Online Tutor 2.0: Methodologies and Case Studies for Successful Learning," (pp. 264-279). Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2014. (978-1-4666-5832-5 / 2326-8905).]
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards without reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Roschelle, Jeremy, Feng, Mingyu, Murphy, Robert F., Mason, Craig A. (2016) Online Mathematics Homework Increases Student Achievement
AERA Open, v2 n4 Oct-Dec 2016
In a randomized field trial with 2,850 seventh-grade mathematics students, we evaluated whether an educational technology intervention increased mathematics learning. Assigning homework is common yet sometimes controversial. Building on prior research on formative assessment and adaptive teaching, we predicted that combining an online homework tool with teacher training could increase learning. The online tool ASSISTments (a) provides timely feedback and hints to students as they do homework and (b) gives teachers timely, organized information about students' work. To test this prediction, we analyzed data from 43 schools that participated in a random assignment experiment in Maine, a state that provides every seventh-grade student with a laptop to take home. Results showed that the intervention significantly increased student scores on an end-of-the-year standardized mathematics assessment as compared with a control group that continued with existing homework practices. Students with low prior mathematics achievement benefited most. The intervention has potential for wider adoption. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED575159.]
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: Yes
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards without reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Selhorst, Adam L., Bao, Mingzhen, Williams, Lorraine, Klein, Eric (2017) The Effect of Online Discussion Board Frequency on Student Performance in Adult Learners
Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, v20 n4 Win 2017
Classroom discussion boards are a vital part of the online educational experience, providing a venue for peer to peer and student to faculty interactions. However, institutional feedback from students at a large open enrollment university has shown that excess focus on online discussions may lead to fatigue, resulting in lower student satisfaction, and in turn, performance. As such, researchers hypothesized that a reduction from two to one required weekly discussions by program administrators would improve student grade point average (GPA), withdraw rate, fail rate, and progression. Using a variety of revision techniques, program administrators revised seven courses over multiple disciplines to reduce required discussion interaction from two to one discussion per week. Resulting data from over 900 students showed that across all courses, no significant differences were seen in average GPA, fail rate, and progression between experimental and control groups (p > 0.47). However, a trend was observed for decreased withdraw rates as courses shifted from two weekly discussions (9.6%) to one (7.2%) (p = 0.19). The method of course revision appeared to effect the GPA and fail rate across some individual courses. Combining two discussions into one larger discussion and pooling assessment points seemed to have negative impacts on withdraw rates and fail rates, while shorter discussions with lower point values were correlated with increased achievement. Based on the study, it appears that adult learners in online courses prefer one weekly discussion over two as illustrated by the decreased withdraw rate in experimental groups. Additionally, students show improved performance with greater assessment weight focused on assignments over discussions. Results suggest that program administrators and faculty might benefit from structuring programs focused on adult online learners with one minimally weighted discussion board per week.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Spichtig, Alexandra N., Gehsmann, Kristin M., Pascoe, Jeffrey P., Ferrara, John D. (2019) The Impact of Adaptive, Web-Based, Scaffolded Silent Reading Instruction on the Reading Achievement of Students in Grades 4 and 5
Elementary School Journal, v119 n3 p443-467 Mar 2019
This randomized controlled trial examined the impact of adaptive, web-based, scaffolded silent reading instruction on 426 fourth- and fifth-grade students in an urban US school district. Reading proficiency was evaluated in the fall and spring using the Group Reading Assessment Diagnostic Evaluation (GRADE) and an eye movement recording system (Visagraph). Fall GRADE scores and demographic factors were used to pair students. One member of each pair was then randomly assigned to the treatment or control condition and their pair to the alternate condition. During scheduled 25-minute supplemental literacy blocks, students in the control group received "business-as-usual" reading instruction, whereas the treatment group engaged in scaffolded silent reading instruction. Structural equation modeling indicated that scaffolded silent reading instruction produced significantly larger gains on measures of reading efficiency in grade 4 and significantly larger gains on the GRADE reading achievement measures in grade 5. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards with reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Stanley, Denise, Zhang, Yi (2018) Student-Produced Videos Can Enhance Engagement and Learning in the Online Environment
Online Learning, v22 n2 p5-26 Jun 2018
Student engagement in online learning remains a challenge for the design of effective coursework. Additionally, few analyses have focused on student-produced activities in the online mode or upon how such class activity affects student subgroups differently. We conducted a randomized design experiment with student video production at a large public university. Student background and behavior factors were measured in two online surveys, which were combined with course assessment data. Because of the small sample size, we observed few significant differences in learning outcomes across the experimental treatment and control sections, except with regard to a value-added measure. We suggest that student learning was likely most concentrated on concepts around which students produced the videos. And when students were divided by incoming language proficiency, non-native English speakers had higher perceived learning; but when grouped by incoming GPA, those with higher previous grades actually achieved higher test scores and pass rates.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: Yes
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Suppes, Patrick, Holland, Paul W., Hu, Yuanan, Vu, Minh-thien (2013) Effectiveness of an Individualized Computer-Driven Online Math K-5 Course in Eight California Title I Elementary Schools
Educational Assessment, v18 n3 p162-181 2013
Stanford University's Education Program for Gifted Youth (EPGY) conducted a randomized-treatment experiment during the 2006-2007 school year to test the efficacy, for Title I students, of the technological and individualized EPGY Kindergarten through Grade 5 Mathematics Course Sequence, modified for the Title I schools. Restricting attention to students who were in the top half of the distribution of correct first-exercise attempts (a measure of work and engagement), we found substantial and statistically significant improvements in the 2007 California Standard Math Tests (CST07) scores compared to those of matched control students. Gains in second grade were larger than those in Grades 3 to 5. Less able students, as measured by their 2006 CST mathematics scores, also had, on average, larger gains.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards with reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Terrazas-Arellanes, Fatima E., Gallard M., Alejandro J., Strycker, Lisa A., Walden, Emily D. (2018) Impact of Interactive Online Units on Learning Science among Students with Learning Disabilities and English Learners
International Journal of Science Education, v40 n5 p498-518 2018
The purpose of this study was to document the design, classroom implementation, and effectiveness of interactive online units to enhance science learning over 3 years among students with learning disabilities, English learners, and general education students. Results of a randomised controlled trial with 2,303 middle school students and 71 teachers across 13 schools in two states indicated that online units effectively deepened science knowledge across all three student groups. Comparing all treatment and control students on pretest-to-posttest improvement on standards-based content-specific assessments, there were statistically significant mean differences (17% improvement treatment vs. 6% control; p < 0.001); no significant interactions were found between treatment condition and learning disability or English learner status, indicating that these two groups performed similarly to their peers; students with learning disabilities had significantly lower assessment scores overall. Teachers and students were moderately satisfied with the units.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Terrazas-Arellanes, Fatima E., Strycker, Lisa A., Walden, Emily D., Gallard, Alejandro (2017) Teaching with Technology: Applications of Collaborative Online Learning Units to Improve 21st Century Skills for All
Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, v36 n4 p375-386 Oct 2017
Inquiry-based learning methods, coupled with advanced technology, hold promise for closing the science literacy gap for English learners (ELs) and students with learning difficulties (SWLDs). Project ESCOLAR (Etext Supports for Collaborative Online Learning and Academic Reading) created collaborative online learning units for middle school science to meet the needs of ELs, SWLDs, and general education students. In a randomized controlled trial with 1,451 students, 28 teachers implemented one of two online units in their classrooms after completing a Web-based professional development course. Results showed that treatment condition students, including ELs and SWLDs, significantly improved science knowledge compared to controls; ELs' gains indicated a knowledge gap reduction compared to general education students. Findings suggest that quality science curriculum and effective technology practices can help all students learn science and prepare for future global scientific challenges.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Vreeburg Izzo, M., Yurick, A., Nagaraja, H. N., & Novak, J. A. (2010) Effects of a 21st-Century Curriculum on Students' Information Technology and Transition Skills
Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, v33 n2 p95-105 Aug 2010
A pretest-posttest control group experimental design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of EnvisionIT, a 10-unit web-based curriculum designed to teach secondary students information technology (IT) skills in the context of transition-planning activities. Fifteen high schools were stratified by socioeconomic status and randomly assigned to the EnvisionIT experimental condition or a control condition in which students received traditional instruction. Pre- and posttest data for 287 students--119 (41%) of whom had disabilities--were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. Findings indicated that students in the experimental group made significantly greater gains in IT literacy than students in the control group. Students in the experimental group also showed greater gains in several transition skills, including goal setting, knowledge of how to find jobs, and information about college. Results support the conclusion that the EnvisionIT curriculum produces improvements in students' acquisition of the 21st-century skills needed for success in today's high tech world. (Contains 3 tables.)
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Does not meet WWC standards
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Wiburg, K., Chamberlin, B., Valdez, A., Trujillo, K., & Stanford, T. (2016) Impact of Math Snacks Games on Students' Conceptual Understanding
Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, v35 n2 p173-193 Apr 2016
This "Math Snacks" intervention measured 741 fifth grade students' gains in conceptual understanding of core math concepts after game-based learning activities. Teachers integrated four "Math Snacks" games and related activities into instruction on ratios, coordinate plane, number systems, fractions and decimals. Using a randomized, controlled, quasi-experimental design, classrooms were randomly assigned to one of two conditions in a delayed treatment model. First Group A, and then Group B, received 5 weeks of "Math Snacks" intervention in addition to the regular district mathematics curriculum. Using a carefully refined test containing multiple choice and open-ended items, both groups were assessed three times: prior to any interventions, at the end of Phase 1 (when only Group A had received the intervention), and at the end of Phase 2 (when both groups had received the intervention). Students' mean gains over 5 weeks were significantly higher while receiving the "Math Snacks" intervention as compared to the group not receiving the intervention.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards without reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Wijekumar, Kausalai Kay, Meyer, Bonnie J. F., Lei, Puiwa (2012) Large-Scale Randomized Controlled Trial with 4th Graders Using Intelligent Tutoring of the Structure Strategy to Improve Nonfiction Reading Comprehension
Educational Technology Research and Development, v60 n6 p987-1013 Dec 2012
Reading comprehension is a challenge for K-12 learners and adults. Nonfiction texts, such as expository texts that inform and explain, are particularly challenging and vital for students' understanding because of their frequent use in formal schooling (e.g., textbooks) as well as everyday life (e.g., newspapers, magazines, and medical information). The structure strategy is explicit instruction about how to strategically use knowledge about text structures for encoding and retrieval of information from nonfiction and has consistently shown significant improvements in reading comprehension. We present the delivery of the structure strategy using a web-based intelligent tutoring system (ITSS) that has the potential to offer consistent modeling, practice tasks, assessment, and feedback to the learner. Finally, we report on statistically significant findings from a large scale randomized controlled efficacy trial with rural and suburban 4th-grade students using ITSS.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards without reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Wijekumar, Kausalai, Meyer, Bonnie J. F., Lei, Puiwa (2017) Web-Based Text Structure Strategy Instruction Improves Seventh Graders' Content Area Reading Comprehension
Journal of Educational Psychology, v109 n6 p741-760 Aug 2017
Reading comprehension in the content areas is a challenge for many middle grade students. Text structure-based instruction has yielded positive outcomes in reading comprehension at all grade levels in small and large studies. The text structure strategy delivered via the web, called Intelligent Tutoring System for the Text Structure Strategy (ITSS), has proven successful in large-scale studies at 4th and 5th grades and a smaller study at 7th grade. Text structure-based instruction focuses on selection and encoding of strategic memory. This strategic memory proves to be an effective springboard for many comprehension-based activities such as summarizing, inferring, elaborating, and applying. This was the first large-scale randomized controlled efficacy study on the web-based delivery of the text structure strategy to 7th-grade students. 108 classrooms from rural and suburban schools were randomly assigned to ITSS or control and pretests and posttests were administered at the beginning and end of the school year. Multilevel data analyses were conducted on standardized and researcher designed measures of reading comprehension. Results showed that ITSS classrooms outperformed the control classrooms on all measures with the highest effects reported for number of ideas included in the main idea. Results have practical implications for classroom practices.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
What Works Clearinghouse Reviewed: Meets WWC standards with reservations
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Wijekumar, Kausalai, Meyer, Bonnie J. F., Lei, Pui-Wa, Lin, Yu-Chu, Johnson, Lori A., Spielvogel, James A., Shurmatz, Kathryn M., Ray, Melissa, Cook, Michael (2014) Multisite Randomized Controlled Trial Examining Intelligent Tutoring of Structure Strategy for Fifth-Grade Readers
Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, v7 n4 p331-357 2014
This article reports on a large scale randomized controlled trial to study the efficacy of a web-based intelligent tutoring system for the structure strategy designed to improve content area reading comprehension. The research was conducted with 128 fifth-grade classrooms within 12 school districts in rural and suburban settings. Classrooms within each school were randomly assigned to intervention or control groups. The intervention group used the intelligent web-based tutoring system for the structure strategy (ITSS) for 30 to 45 min each week as a partial substitute for the language arts curriculum for the entire school year. The structure strategy teaches students how to read and comprehend expository texts by identifying the text structure and creating strategic mental representations of the text. The web-based tutoring system delivered the structure strategy training with modeling, practice tasks, assessment, and feedback. The control classrooms used the school's language arts curriculum for the full language-arts time. Results show that the ITSS delivered structure strategy training improved reading comprehension measured by a standardized test and researcher designed measures.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: No
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
Zeglen, Eric, Rosendale, Joseph A. (2018) Increasing Online Information Retention: Analysing the Effects of Visual Hints and Feedback in Educational Games
Journal of Open, Flexible and Distance Learning, v22 n1 p22-33 2018
Although online education offerings continue to grow in the higher education marketplace, issues of student achievement and course rigour still challenge the underlying instructional model, and alignment with institutional missions. Pedagogically, instructors and course designers can mitigate these issues by leveraging technology to further enhance students' cognition and knowledge retention within the online domain. This study analysed the effects of visual hints and elaborate feedback embedded in serious educational games to determine the effects on student learning and information recollection. Using a quasi-experimental design and quantitative testing methods based on differing forms of feedback in the game, significant differences were found among three groups of students in an online educational environment. Mean scores on comprehension tests indicated that participants who were exposed to elaborate feedback and visual hints performed better than control groups in an online learning environment. This supports the underlying framework of information processing theory.
Peer reviewed: Yes
Full text available on ERIC: Yes
Reviewed as Part of Distance Learning Rapid Review: Yes
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