Live Webcam Coaching to Help Early Elementary Classroom Teachers Provide Effective Literacy Instruction for Struggling Readers: The Targeted Reading Intervention
Vernon-Feagans, Lynne; Kainz, Kirsten; Hedrick, Amy; Ginsberg, Marnie; Amendum, Steve (2013). Journal of Educational Psychology, v105 n4 p1175-1187 Nov 2013. Retrieved from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1054424
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examining272Students, gradesK-1
Single Study Review
Review Details
Reviewed: November 2025
- Single Study Review (findings for Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI))
- Randomized Controlled Trial
- Meets WWC standards with reservations because it is a compromised cluster randomized controlled trial, but it satisfies the baseline equivalence requirement for the individuals in the analytic intervention and comparison groups.
This review may not reflect the full body of research evidence for this intervention.
Evidence Tier rating based solely on this study. This intervention may achieve a higher tier when combined with the full body of evidence.
Findings
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Outcome measure |
Comparison | Period | Sample |
Intervention mean |
Comparison mean |
Significant? |
Improvement index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ-DRB III): Passage Comprehension |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Business as usual |
1 Semester |
Full sample;
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446.02 |
435.34 |
No |
-- |
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Outcome measure |
Comparison | Period | Sample |
Intervention mean |
Comparison mean |
Significant? |
Improvement index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-III) |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Business as usual |
1 Semester |
Full sample;
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93.56 |
95.27 |
No |
-- |
Evidence Tier rating based solely on this study. This intervention may achieve a higher tier when combined with the full body of evidence.
Sample Characteristics
Characteristics of study sample as reported by study author.
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Female: 43%
Male: 57% -
Rural
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North Carolina, Nebraska, New Mexico, Texas
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Race Other or unknown 54% White 46% -
Ethnicity Other or unknown 100% -
Eligible for Free and Reduced Price Lunch Other or unknown 100%
Study Details
Setting
The study was conducted in kindergarten and first-grade classrooms in 15 Title I schools in Nebraska, New Mexico, North Carolina, and Texas.
Study sample
The study randomly assigned 15 Title I schools to deliver the Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) or business-as-usual instruction in kindergarten and first-grade classrooms. These 15 schools included 43 kindergarten and first-grade classrooms that delivered TRI to 192 students who were struggling with reading and 32 classrooms that delivered business-as-usual instruction to 107 students who were struggling with reading. The analytic sample included 272 kindergarten and first-grade students. About half (57 percent) of the students were male and half (46 percent) were White.
Intervention Group
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) aims to provide one-on-one individualized instruction to students struggling with reading during regular class time for 15 minutes a day until a struggling reader no longer needs help. Teachers provided TRI instructions to struggling readers sequentially: first student received TRI instruction; when the first student no longer needed additional supports, the second struggling reader received the TRI instruction, and so on. Outcomes were collected in the spring semester for all students. The one-on-one sessions involve three activities: (1) re-reading a previously read passage for fluency, (2) word work where the teacher uses multiple strategies to help student learn to say, write and manipulate words; and (3) guided oral reading with teacher fostering vocabulary and comprehension skills.
Comparison Group
The students in the comparison group received business-as-usual instruction.
Support for implementation
Intervention teachers participated in a 3-day summer workshop on TRI strategies. They also received biweekly one-on-one literacy coaching via webcam. The coaches observed the teachers as they provided one-on-one TRI instruction to struggling students and could provide real-time feedback if any challenges arose. Coaches were doctoral students with extensive experience as teachers or reading coaches in elementary schools. The TRI program also provides instructional materials, webcam workshops, webcam team/grade level meetings, and email correspondence between teacher and coach.
Live Webcam Coaching to Help Early Elementary Classroom Teachers Provide Effective Literacy Instruction for Struggling Readers: The Targeted Reading Intervention
Review Details
Reviewed: June 2017
- Single Study Review (686 KB) (findings for Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI))
- Randomized Controlled Trial
- Meets WWC standards with reservations because it is a randomized controlled trial with high attrition, but the analytic intervention and comparison groups satisfy the baseline equivalence requirement.
This review may not reflect the full body of research evidence for this intervention.
Evidence Tier rating based solely on this study. This intervention may achieve a higher tier when combined with the full body of evidence.
Findings
|
Outcome measure |
Comparison | Period | Sample |
Intervention mean |
Comparison mean |
Significant? |
Improvement index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ-DRB III): Letter Word Identification |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Business as usual |
1 Year |
Struggling readers;
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N/A |
N/A |
Yes |
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Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ-DRB III): Spelling of Sounds |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Business as usual |
1 Year |
Struggling readers;
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N/A |
N/A |
Yes |
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Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ-DRB III): Word Attack |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Business as usual |
1 Year |
Struggling readers;
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N/A |
N/A |
Yes |
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|
Outcome measure |
Comparison | Period | Sample |
Intervention mean |
Comparison mean |
Significant? |
Improvement index |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ-DRB III): Passage Comprehension |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Business as usual |
1 Year |
Struggling readers;
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N/A |
N/A |
Yes |
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Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test III (PPTV-III) |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Business as usual |
1 Year |
Struggling readers;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- | ||
| Show Supplemental Findings | |||||||||
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Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ-DRB III): Passage Comprehension |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Business as usual |
1 Year |
Struggling readers in Grade 1;
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462.15 |
455.74 |
No |
-- | ||
Evidence Tier rating based solely on this study. This intervention may achieve a higher tier when combined with the full body of evidence.
Sample Characteristics
Characteristics of study sample as reported by study author.
-
Female: 43%
Male: 57% -
Rural
-
- B
- A
- C
- D
- E
- F
- G
- I
- H
- J
- K
- L
- P
- M
- N
- O
- Q
- R
- S
- V
- U
- T
- W
- X
- Z
- Y
- a
- h
- i
- b
- d
- e
- f
- c
- g
- j
- k
- l
- m
- n
- o
- p
- q
- r
- s
- t
- u
- v
- x
- w
- y
North Carolina, Nebraska, New Mexico, Texas
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Race Other or unknown 55% White 45%
Study Details
Setting
The study was conducted in kindergarten and first-grade classrooms in public schools in poor rural counties in Nebraska, New Mexico, North Carolina, and Texas.
Study sample
Sixteen rural schools were assigned to matched pairs based on district, school size, school participation in Reading First, and the percentages of students who were minorities and receiving free or reduced-price lunch. One school in each pair was randomly selected for the intervention. One intervention school later left the study due to problems with Internet connectivity. All kindergarten and first-grade classrooms in the remaining 15 schools were included in the study. Teachers identified struggling readers using state assessment data, classroom observation information, and input from the TRI literacy coach. Within each classroom, five struggling readers were randomly selected for the study, for a total of 385 students (220 in the intervention group and 165 in the comparison group). The analytic sample included 247–250 students (158–160 in the intervention group and 87–90 in the comparison group, depending on study outcome) across 15 schools (seven intervention and eight comparison). Over half of the sample was male (63% in the intervention group and 54% in the comparison), and less than half were White (49% in the intervention group and 39% in the comparison group).
Intervention Group
Teachers in TRI schools attended a 3-day summer workshop on TRI strategies. During the school year, TRI teachers received biweekly observation and feedback from TRI literacy coaches, and met biweekly with other TRI teachers and their TRI literacy coach to reinforce strategies and problem solve. TRI teachers also participated in workshops every few months to obtain support with understanding of the TRI process, models, and strategies. All school-year support was provided via webcam. The TRI program also provides a website with instructional resources and the ability to interact with coaches via email. During the school year, teachers delivered ongoing one-on-one reading instruction for struggling readers in 15-minute sessions. Each session included the following three components: (1) re-reading selected texts for fluency; (2) “word work” using letter tiles to demonstrate the alphabetic principle, teach phoneme–grapheme relationships, support phonemic awareness development, and improve student recognition of sight words; and (3) guided oral reading (more detail on the three components is provided in the study). Teachers worked individually with a student for an average of 14 sessions over the course of the year. When students made progress, they were placed in a small group, and another struggling reader began receiving one-on-one instruction from the teacher.
Comparison Group
Students in the comparison condition continued to receive normal reading instruction, without the use of the TRI, via their regular classroom teacher or other school staff.
Support for implementation
All of the TRI coaches had experience as teachers and/or reading coaches in early elementary school. Most were doctoral students in education. The coaches received feedback from the intervention director by providing videotapes of their own teaching of individual students. The coaches received additional feedback throughout the school year, with a particular focus on how to motivate teachers to implement the TRI well.
Grant Competition
Review Details
Reviewed: February 2014
- Grant Competition (findings for Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI))
- Randomized controlled trial
- Meets WWC standards with reservations
This review may not reflect the full body of research evidence for this intervention.
Evidence Tier rating based solely on this study. This intervention may achieve a higher tier when combined with the full body of evidence.
Findings
|
Outcome measure |
Comparison | Period | Sample |
Intervention mean |
Comparison mean |
Significant? |
Improvement index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Letter-Word Identification |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Struggling readers in treatment schools;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
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Woodcock-Johnson (WJ): Word Attack subtest |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Struggling readers in treatment schools;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
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Spelling of sounds |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Struggling readers in treatment schools;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
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Letter-Word Identification |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Non-struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Non-struggling readers in treatment schools;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
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Spelling of sounds |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Non-struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Non-struggling readers in treatment schools;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
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Woodcock-Johnson (WJ): Word Attack subtest |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Non-struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Non-struggling readers in treatment schools;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
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Outcome measure |
Comparison | Period | Sample |
Intervention mean |
Comparison mean |
Significant? |
Improvement index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Passage comprehension |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Struggling readers in treatment schools;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
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Passage comprehension |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Non-struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Non-struggling readers in treatment schools;
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N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
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Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Struggling readers in treatment schools;
|
N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
|
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) |
Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI) vs. Non-struggling readers in control schools |
Fall to Spring |
Non-struggling readers in treatment schools;
|
N/A |
N/A |
No |
-- |
Evidence Tier rating based solely on this study. This intervention may achieve a higher tier when combined with the full body of evidence.
Sample Characteristics
Characteristics of study sample as reported by study author.
-
Female: 50%
Male: 50% -
Rural
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Race Other or unknown 50%
An indicator of the effect of the intervention, the improvement index can be interpreted as the expected change in percentile rank for an average comparison group student if that student had received the intervention.
For more, please see the WWC Glossary entry for improvement index.
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