Project Activities
FRaME was developed and refined through a multi-phase mixed-methods process across five years. In the first year, researchers conducted qualitative interviews to document variation in classroom-management instruction and inform substantial revisions to multimedia components. During the next 2 years, they focused on iterative usability and feasibility studies of CAP-TV, reflection processes, and the COACHED feedback system across teacher preparation programs nationwide. In the final 2 years, researchers conducted rigorous pilot studies in university programs, randomized controlled trials with teacher candidates in authentic classrooms, single-case design studies with rural educators, and a school-leader coaching study evaluating the use of COACHED within ongoing instructional supervision systems. Two major professional development institutes, in 2023 and 2025, trained faculty across more than 50 programs.
Structured Abstract
Setting
FRaME was implemented across more than 50 teacher preparation programs nationwide and in K–12 classrooms in rural, suburban, and urban contexts. University-based studies primarily involved special education and classroom management courses. School-based studies involved elementary and middle school settings, including (a) rural schools participating in a multi-tier single-case design, and (b) elementary schools implementing school leader coaching using COACHED.
Sample
In the first year, 37 faculty across 33 universities participated. In the subsequent years, 77 faculty participated in usability, feasibility, and effectiveness explorations in the two FRaME Institutes. In the last 2 years, 19 teachers and 331 students (approximately 12.5% with IEPs) participated in the pilot studies, 5 rural teachers participated in the single-case research, and 16 teachers participated in the school implementation study.
FRaME is a multicomponent instructional and coaching intervention intended to strengthen educators’ implementation of evidence-based classroom management practices. There are three core elements: (a) CAP-TV multimedia vignettes providing declarative and procedural knowledge with embedded modeling videos from real classrooms; (b) a structured reflection matrix prompting teachers to analyze, interpret, and refine their use of EBPs; and (c) COACHED, a data-driven observation and automated feedback system that generates initial evidence-based feedback drafts, which observers refine before delivering to teachers. Using FRaME, participants across studies learned and implemented five core EBPs for classroom management. In the final year, school leaders also learned to support teachers’ academic-specific feedback.
Research design and methods
Researchers used a multi-phase, mixed-methods research design to iteratively develop, refine, and pilot test FRaME. In the first year, the team conducted qualitative interviews and focus groups to document existing approaches to teaching classroom management and to gather formative feedback on initial intervention components that guided substantial revisions to the FRaME multimedia vignettes, reflection processes, and data-driven coaching tools. In the next 2 years, the research team completed iterative usability and feasibility studies using experimental two-group, pretest, posttest, and maintenance designs to evaluate the effects of FRaME on teacher candidates’ declarative and procedural knowledge of classroom management practices and their ability to apply these practices in microteaching or course-based performance assessments. Data informed revisions to the CAP-TV videos, reflective matrices, and COACHED-generated feedback. In the final 2 years, researchers conducted pilot trials of the full FRaME intervention in authentic school settings, including a single-case design with middle school teachers and a study with school leaders, teachers, and their students. Researchers also compared the effectiveness and feasibility of teaching the FRaME process to teacher educators across two FRaME training institutes. In a pretest-posttest design, researchers explored feedback quality of teacher educators using their business-as-usual approach and then again after using FRaME materials. During the second institute, there was an online-only comparison condition so that researchers could compare costs and feasibility of learning online.
Key measures
Measures assessed teacher knowledge, performance, feedback quality, feasibility/usability, and student engagement. Researchers used COACHED to assess teacher candidates’ knowledge of evidence-based classroom management practices and application of evidence-based practices through microteaching videos and school-based lesson observations. Researchers measured frequency and quality of behavior-specific praise and opportunities to respond through systematic direct observation and through COACHED implementation markers. They also documented baseline practices and growth in active supervision, opportunities to respond, praise, prompting, and routines using the Classroom Teaching Scan and the Classroom Management Observation Tool. Researchers measured feedback quality and changes in feedback quality using the Quality of Written Performance Feedback for Improvement of Practices and Process (Q-WIPP), a researcher-created measure. Researchers also measured FRaME using surveys and interviews from faculty, school leaders, and teacher candidates, and measured change in teacher self-efficacy using the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale. Researchers used the Behavioral Observation of Students in Schools (BOSS) tool to measure student engagement over time.
Data analytic strategy
Researchers used thematic coding of first year interview data to identify perceptions of classroom management instruction, needs for multimedia-supported training, and recommendations for refining FRaME components. Across subsequent years, researchers used qualitative feedback from instructors, school leaders, and candidates to refine intervention features and interpret implementation processes. Reflexive thematic analysis supported identification of themes related to personalized feedback, opportunities to respond, praise use, usability, and practicality. Across the second through fourth years, mixed-model ANOVAs were used to test for differences within and between groups across pretest, posttest, and maintenance time points on knowledge measures and teacher implementation outcomes captured through video-coded lessons. Researchers used regression analyses to examine whether gains in knowledge predicted higher fidelity implementation of evidence-based practices as measured by COACHED and other observational tools. For the single-case design study, researchers used visual analysis of trend, level, and stability, along with effect size indices. Teacher and student outcomes were compared across baseline, intervention, and maintenance phases. For the final teacher implementation study, researchers used the BOSS direct observation system to observe students with and without disabilities’ on task behavior and engagement during lessons taught by teachers being coached. Data were analyzed using a pretest-posttest design for school leaders, teachers, and students across three time points. Researchers integrated qualitative and quantitative findings through triangulation of teacher knowledge outcomes, implementation fidelity, feedback quality, participant perceptions, and student engagement.
Cost analysis strategy
Using the ingredients approach, costs were calculated across training modes, staffing, COACHED use, CAP-TV development, and personnel time. Cost distributions across universities, districts, and schools were estimated, and per-participant estimates inform scalability. The second training institute demonstrated equivalent outcomes for virtual and in-person formats, with virtual delivery costing approximately $48,000 less with no decrement in outcomes.
Key outcomes
The main findings of this project, as reported by the principal investigator, are as follows:
- Feedback quality improved dramatically for faculty and school leaders in nearly every Q-WIPP domain (specificity, strategy statements, corrective suggestions, connections to data, and goals).
- The virtual and in-person training did not differ in effectiveness and the virtual training cost approximately $48,000 less, supporting scalability and efficiency.
- Following FRaME coaching, teachers increased the quantity and quality of key evidence-based classroom management practices, including behavior-specific praise, opportunities to respond, and academic-specific feedback (Speight et al., 2025).
- Student engagement increased for learners with and without disabilities, with students with IEPs improving from 50% to 70% total engagement and non-IEP peers from 74% to 85%. Using COACHED, teachers used more evidence-based practices following coaching from their school principal.
- Faculty, school leaders, and teachers consistently rated FRaME as clear, useful, and impactful, with more than 87% strongly agreeing the professional development improved their teaching and feedback practices.
People and institutions involved
IES program contact(s)
Project contributors
Products and publications
Project website:
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Publications:
ERIC Citations: Find available citations in ERIC for this award here.
Select Publications:
Speight, R., Hirsch, S., Kennedy, M. J., Michaud, C., Qualls, L., and Aigotti, S. (2025). Supporting rural educators’ implementation quality of classroom management practices: A professional development study. Teaching and Teacher Education. doi: 10.1016/j.tate/2025.105317
Hirsch, S. E., Kelley, M., & Qualls, L. W. (2025). Preparing the next generation of educators to implement classroom positive behavior interventions and supports. In T. J. Lewis, B. Simonsen, K. McIntosh, and H. P. George (Eds.), Handbook of positive behavior supports, 2nd edition. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-96102-1_18
Kennedy, M., Kunemund, R., Coleman, O., Griendling, L., Peeples, K., Day, J., Waterfield, D., McClain, S. (2024). Harnessing technology to support special education teachers. In E. McCray, E. Bettini, M. Brownell, J. McLeskey, & Sindelar, P. (Eds.). Handbook of research on special education teacher preparation (2nd Ed). Routledge.
Youngs, P., Hirsch, S. E., Nagro, S., & Kennedy, M. (2023). Approaches to teaching classroom management at 33 universities: More commonality than difference? Teacher Education and Special Education. 46(4), 284-299. https://doi.org/10.1177/08884064231170577
Kennedy, M. J., Kunemund, R., & Griendling, L. M. (2023). Using multimedia to support teacher candidates’ knowledge and use of evidence-based classroom management practices. In E. Sabornie & D. Espelage (Eds.), Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice, and Issues. Routledge.
Kennedy, M. J., Kunemund, R., Griendling, L., & Kellems, R. (2023). Use assistive and instructional technology. In J. McLeskey, L. Maheady, B. Billingsley, M. Brownell, T. Lewis, & Alber-Morgan, S. (Eds.) High leverage practices for intensive interventions. Routledge.
Hirsch, S. E., Larson, K., Beahm, L., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2022). Adapting classroom management for delivery across contexts: A focus on urban, rural, and online settings. In E. Sabornie and D. Espelage (Eds). Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and issues, 3rd edition (pp 128-151). Routledge.
Qualls, L., Carlisle, L., & Day, J., & Hirsch, S. E. (2022). Selecting and integrating high-quality videos into preservice education. Journal of Special Education Preparation, 2(1), 38-47. doi: 10.33043/JOSEP.2.1.38-47
Nagro, S., Hirsch, S., & Kennedy, M. J. (2020). A self-led approach to improving classroom management practices using video analysis. Teaching Exceptional Children, 53(1), 24-32. doi: 10.1177/0040059920914329
Additional project information
Additional online resources and information:
COACHED is available at www.coached.education.virginia.edu, CAP-TVs, and reflection matrices are contained within the platform.
Video 1: https://vimeo.com/673300069 Teach and Re-Teach Expectations and Procedures
Video 2: https://vimeo.com/673305723 Provide Prompts and Precorrections
Video 3: https://vimeo.com/673374070 Provide Behavior-Specific Praise Statements
Video 4: https://vimeo.com/673745162 Use OTRs
Video 5: https://vimeo.com/673789095 Provide Behavior-Specific Redirections
Video 6: https://vimeo.com/936009520 Academic Specific Feedback
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